Main subjects market economy

There are quite a lot of market economy entities. These are producers and consumers, entrepreneurs and employees, industrialists, bankers, traders, owners of loan capital and securities, etc. In the most general view subjects of a market economy are divided into three large groups (Fig. 7.4).

Each of these aggregated entities performs its own functions (Table 7.2).

Table 7.2. Functions of the main subjects of a market economy

Households	How do owners of factors offer labor, land, and capital on the resource market; receive income from the sale of resources; use income to purchase consumer goods and services to satisfy personal needs
Entrepreneurs	They present a demand for resources; offer tangible goods and services both for the business and public sectors (investment tangible goods and productive services) and for households (consumer tangible and intangible goods); invest the income received
State	Presents a demand for economic resources to carry out activities in the public sector of the economy; offers money; offers public goods without direct payment or with partial payment, which has a positive effect on the productivity of the business sector and reduces household consumption costs; carries out government regulation of the market economy

The state as a subject of a market economy

A real model of economic structure involves the use of both a market mechanism that ensures the efficient functioning of the economy, and a state regulatory mechanism to solve a number of problems that the market refuses to solve or the market solution of which is too expensive for society (Fig. 7.5.)

The main tasks of the state in the conditions of market economic systems:

• - legal support for the functioning of the market mechanism;
• - organization and regulation of money circulation;
• - protection and promotion of competition;
• - production of public goods;
• - minimizing transaction costs;
• - compensation for external effects (externalities);
• - minimizing macroeconomic fluctuations;
• - redistribution of income through fiscal policy;
• - implementation of national interests in the global economy.

External effects (externalities)- costs and benefits in connection with the production and consumption of economic goods by entities not participating in the market agreement. Externalities can be negative or positive.

Positive effects arise when the production or consumption of a good brings unpaid benefits to third parties.

Example. Costs of limiting the spread and eliminating the cholera epidemic (isolating patients, providing them medical care, maintenance during the incubation period of those who were in contact with patients, etc.) give positive effect those who could have gotten sick but avoided that fate by not directly paying for the health care services noted above.

Negative effects arise in cases where the production or consumption of any good causes uncompensated costs for third parties.

Example. By polluting the environment, the enterprise shifts part of the costs (for the introduction of treatment facilities, waste-free technologies, etc.) that it should have carried out to the population, thus forcing them to spend part of their income on treatment, live in conditions of discomfort, etc. etc.)" without compensating him (the population) for these costs.

The consequence of positive externalities is the excess of the social utility of goods over individual utility. This excess is not compensated by the market, because the market pays only for individual utility. Therefore, the market allocates insufficient resources to the production of such goods.

The consequence of negative externalities is a reduction in the actual costs of the entrepreneur, which leads to an expansion of the supply of these goods above the equilibrium level and a reduction in price relative to the optimal level. Therefore, the market directs resources to the production of economic goods with a negative effect in excess of their optimal volume.

The English economist Arthur Pigou, as a result of a study of the nature of externalities, proposed the introduction by the state of a certain tax to eliminate external effects, which is known in the scientific literature as the Pigou tax.

American economist Robert Coase, based on the study of external effects, came to the following conclusions, opposite to the conclusions of A. Pigou.

• 1. If property rights are clearly defined by law and people carefully adhere to them, then no external effects arise, “market failures” do not exist, and there is no need for the state to interfere in economic life.
• 2. Externalities arise only where property rights are blurred. Where they are clearly defined, external effects turn into internal ones.
• 3. For the successful functioning of the market, transaction costs (the costs of using the market mechanism) are of paramount importance.
• 4. Government regulation justified only when the costs associated with government intervention are less than the costs associated with “market failures.”

Thus, if existing externalities distort the monetary assessment of costs and benefits, which leads to inefficient allocation of resources, then the market system of public goods does not produce or produces quasi-public goods significantly less than society has a need for them.

Unlike ordinary private goods, the use of which presupposes their obligatory acquisition for money (purchase), public goods (national defense, public administration, protection environment, street lighting, etc. etc.) are consumed simply because they are produced. The benefits from the use of public goods are received not only by those who incurred the costs of their creation or paid for their consumption, but also by those who did not spend anything on it. Costs for the production of public goods are carried out through withdrawals in the form of taxation.

The subjects of a market economy are sellers and buyers.

Economic ties ensure the movement of products from producer to consumer; multilateral exchange occurs between producers, on the one hand, and consumers, on the other.

Such metabolic processes are determined by the social division of labor, which, on the one hand, separates producers, separates them by type labor activity, on the other hand, generates stable functional relationships between them. The first develops into economic isolation, into economic independence of each manufacturer and serves as the economic basis for the formation of subjects of market relations. The second is modified into exchange processes on an equivalent basis through the purchase and sale of goods.

As a result, the economic prerequisite for the transformation of a simple producer into a subject of market relations materializes and production becomes commercial. Manufacturers independently organize the production and sale of products, reimburse costs, expand and improve production. Exchange processes in the conditions of commodity-money relations take the form of market relations.

From the limited economic resources follows the need for economic activity, in other words, the transformation and adaptation of economic resources in order to meet needs.

Economic (economic) activity is nothing more than constant work to evaluate, compare and select alternative options for the use of economic resources. This happens at all levels, and economic entities (participants in the economic process) participate in this.

Economic entities, or, as they are more often called in economic science, economic agents, usually include everyone who independently makes decisions, plans and implements practical activities in the field of economic activity. Economic agents include individuals, families, heads of business units (enterprises, banks, insurance companies), boards of joint stock companies, government bodies and institutions.

A distinctive feature of economic agents is the adoption and implementation of independent decisions in the field of economic activity. These kinds of decisions are made and implemented by consumers. They either buy goods or refuse to buy. Independent decisions are made by enterprises producing goods and services. They plan what to produce, in what sizes, at what prices and under what conditions to sell.

The position and role of each economic agent is determined by its relationship to the factors of production, by what factors of production it owns. Some have capital and have economic power, determine forms of management, participate in management, and engage in entrepreneurial activities. Others control only their own labor force, and their ability to influence the organization of production, distribution of income, and participation in management is limited.

At the same time, different attitudes towards factors of production not only divide, but also in a certain way connect people, create mutual interest in combining dissimilar factors, joint participation in the organization, and the constant renewal of various spheres and types of economic activity.

In accordance with the role played by economic agents, it is customary to distinguish between households, enterprises (firms) and the state (bodies government controlled, government agencies), often non-profit organizations.

Market objects include goods and money.

What is a product? A commodity is a product of labor intended for exchange through purchase and sale. A product has two properties: firstly, it satisfies some human need, and secondly, it is a thing that can be exchanged for another thing. In other words, a product has use value and exchange value.

And what is equally important, the product must not only be manufactured (produced), not only made for others, but also sold to other people, that is, transferred on the basis of equivalent (equal) consideration (a gift, although produced to satisfy the needs of another person , is not a product).

Things do not become goods in themselves, but only when they become objects of exchange between people. Therefore, the product expresses the relationship between people regarding the exchange of labor products. The exchange of goods can take many forms, but in all cases, exchange is the action in which we receive or give one thing in exchange for another.

Money has been known since ancient times, and it appeared as a result of higher development of productive forces and commodity relations.

The entire history of economic development is simultaneously the history of the development of commodity production and commodity relations, where connections between producers were carried out through the exchange of some goods for others. In the early stages, the exchange was random and carried out without the help of money.

Such an exchange (now called “barter”) is fraught with considerable difficulties. The spontaneous process of exchange forced society to take a fundamental step in the evolution of exchange operations. As a result of a very long and complex development of exchange, one commodity emerged as the universal equivalent. With the development of exchange and the creation of a world market, such a role was assigned to noble metals - gold and silver - due to their natural properties, such as qualitative homogeneity, quantitative divisibility, storability and portability. From that time on, the entire commodity world was divided into two parts: into the “commodity mob” and a special commodity that plays the role of a universal equivalent - money.

Thus, money is a historical category that develops at each stage of commodity production and is filled with new content, which becomes more complex with changes in production conditions. The transition from a subsistence economy to a commodity economy, as well as the requirement to maintain the equivalence of exchange, necessitated the emergence of money, without which the mass exchange of goods, which develops on the basis of production specialization and property isolation of commodity producers, is impossible.

Thus, the essence of money lies in the fact that it is a specific commodity form, with the natural form of which the social function of a universal equivalent merges. The essence of money is expressed in the unity of its two properties: universal direct exchangeability and universal labor time.

The essence of money as an economic category is manifested in its functions, which express the internal content of money.

Money performs the following five functions: a measure of value, a medium of exchange, a means of payment, a means of storage and savings, and world money.

The essence of the market is most fully manifested in its functions. The most important functions include:

• - function of self-regulation of commodity production. It manifests itself in the fact that with an increase in demand for a product, manufacturers expand the scale of their production and raise prices. As a result, production begins to decline;
• - stimulating function. When prices fall, manufacturers reduce production and at the same time seek opportunities to reduce costs by introducing new equipment, technology, and improving labor organization;
• - the function of establishing the social significance of the manufactured product and labor costs. However, this function can operate in conditions of shortage-free production (when the buyer has a choice, the absence of a monopoly position in production, the presence of several producers and competition between them);
• - regulatory function. With the help of the market, the basic micro-functions of democratization are established economic life, implementation of the principles of self-government. With the help of market levers of influence, social production is liberated from its economic non-viable elements and, due to this, commodity producers are differentiated.

The basic principles of a market economy are as follows:

• - freedom of economic activity, that is, free market competition of goods, services and securities without interference in the process of purchase and sale of the state or local authorities. At the micro level, economic activity takes on the character of entrepreneurial activity (business). Free enterprise expresses the free right of private firms to use economic resources to produce goods of their own choosing and to sell the goods produced in markets of their own choosing at free prices;
• - equality of market subjects;

The main economic argument for a market system is that it promotes the efficient allocation of resources. According to this thesis, a competitive market system directs resources to produce those goods and services that society needs most. It dictates the use of the most effective methods combining resources for production and contributes to the development and implementation of new, more efficient production technologies. The "invisible hand" thus controls personal gain. It provides society with the production of the greatest quantity of necessary goods from available resources. This therefore implies maximum economic efficiency.

It is the efficiency of distribution that makes most economists question the need for government intervention in the functioning of free markets, or government regulation of their operations, except in cases where such intervention becomes forced.

An important non-economic argument in favor of a market system is freedom. One of the fundamental problems of organizing society is how to coordinate the economic activities of many individuals and enterprises.

There are two ways of such coordination: one is through centralized control and the use of coercive measures; the other is voluntary cooperation through the market system. Only a market system can coordinate economic activity without coercion. The market system represents freedom of enterprise and choice; in fact, it is on this basis that it succeeds.

Employers and workers are not driven by government directives from one industry to another to ensure production targets set by some all-powerful government department are met. On the contrary, in a market system they are free to seek to increase their own benefits, subject, of course, to the rewards and punishments that they receive from the market system itself.

The market mechanism has both advantages and disadvantages. The positive functions of the market make it, in principle, a fairly effective system. This does not mean, however, that market relations are absolutely perfect and ensure the progressive development of society in everything. The market economy has its inherent shortcomings (imperfections).

Firstly, the functioning of the market system is based on the spontaneous action of economic regulators. This creates instability in the economy; the imbalances that inevitably arise are not immediately eliminated. Secondly, when the market environment is uncontrolled, monopolized structures inevitably arise, limiting freedom of competition with all its positive functions, creating unjustified privileges for a limited number of market participants.

Thirdly, the spontaneously operating mechanism of the market does not adjust the economy to satisfy many social needs, and does not internally contribute to the formation of funds used to satisfy the needs of society that are not directly related to business. First of all, this is the formation of social transfers (pensions, scholarships, benefits), support for healthcare, education, science, art, culture, sports and many other socially oriented areas.

Fourthly, the market does not provide stable employment for the working population and guaranteed labor income. Everyone is forced to independently take care of their place in society, which inevitably leads to social stratification, that is, division into rich and poor, and increases social tension. Market relations create favorable conditions for the manifestation of selfish interests that give rise to speculation, corruption, racketeering, drug trafficking and other antisocial phenomena.

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It is customary to refer to subjects as the main actors in decision-making, or the persons carrying out activities. An object refers to what the actions of subjects are aimed at in order to change their state.

Subjects of a market economy - concept

A market model is a model of economic development that is characterized by freedom of private property, competition between producers, Free access to enter the industry, decentralization and lack of monopoly. Subjects of a market economy (ME) carry out economic activities, plan and organize the production process and make decisions.

Subjects include:

• households;
• organizations;
• state.

This subject involves association individuals living together and jointly making the budget and decisions on its formation. This EDS has the following characteristics:

• Adoption general solutions subjects, regardless of the number of members included in it;
• each of these subjects is endowed with certain resources and independently manages them: sells, consumes;
• The purpose of the activity of this entity is not to generate income. Each household has a list of its needs and has resources at its disposal, and its goal is to manage this in such a way as to make the most useful use of resources to meet its needs.

Organization as a subject of a market economy

Any organization exists with the goal of obtaining maximum income in a market economy. The organization produces products, which it then sells, and the difference between production costs and the cost at which the product is sold is the organization’s income. In its activities, the organization uses resources provided by households.

By paying for the resource, the household satisfies its needs. Organizations, after purchasing resources, produce goods that are sold to consumers. Moreover, the household is already a consumer of the finished product. And the organization, using the income received, buys an additional amount of resource.

The totality of actions of subjects organizes cash flow. When constructing cash flow, we proceed from the fact that all SRE act rationally, that is, their actions are aimed at obtaining the best result, taking into account the current restrictions.

In the market model of economic development, the state has a special role: it does not act as a strict regulator and price setter, as in the administrative model. It provides a control function through actions government agencies management. The state can also act as a short-term regulator in the event of sudden destabilization economic system during market fluctuations.

The state is responsible for publicly beneficial goods, areas and industries that are unprofitable for private business.

The state is entrusted with the following functions:

• ensuring the legal framework for the functioning of all entities in the economic system;
• issue of funds;
• implementation of tax and fiscal policy;
• creation of antimonopoly legislation, control over the activities of monopolies;
• socially useful goods: availability, production;
• foreign economic policy;
• ensuring a safe operating environment for all entities.

According to the theoretical model of a market economy, in order for the state not to act as a regulator, one should:

• Legislatively highlight, consolidate and ensure strict compliance and control over the inviolability of property rights.
• When property rights are clearly defined, market failures do not arise in any areas.
• Transaction costs should be given priority.
• Government intervention makes sense only if the expected benefits of the intervention are greater than the costs incurred.

Also, this model clearly identifies public goods for which the subject does not pay directly, but still consumes: security, public administration and others. At the same time, to cover the costs of their creation, there is a taxation system.

Household

Households

State

Business –

Depreciation of fixed assets

After a certain period of time from the moment of purchase or creation, fixed assets lose part of their value. In economics, this phenomenon is called wear and tear, i.e. And depreciation is the gradual loss of fixed assets of their use value.

Physical deterioration- this is the loss of fixed assets of their consumer value as a result of wear of parts, exposure to natural factors and aggressive environments. Physical wear and tear can be of two types: natural and operational. Accordingly, this is a loss of value during operation or due to natural aging processes. The coefficient of physical wear and tear is calculated using the formula

Where AND– the amount of depreciation accrued over the entire period of operation; From the first– the initial (replacement) cost of an item of fixed assets.

For objects whose service life is below the standard, the wear coefficient can be calculated using the formula

Where T f Tn– standard service life of this object.

For objects whose service life has exceeded the standard, the wear coefficient is found using the formula

Where T f– actual service life of this object; Tn– standard service life of this object; T in – the possible remaining service life of a given object in excess of what is actually achieved.

Obsolescence- this is a loss of value due to a decrease in the cost of reproduction of similar fixed assets due to the improvement of technology and organization of the production process. There are two types of obsolescence: fixed assets depreciate in value, since similar fixed assets are produced at lower costs and become cheaper; As a result of scientific and technological progress, more modern and more productive equipment appears.

Relative amount of obsolescence first type can be calculated using the formula

Where From the first– the initial cost of the means of labor; From recovery– replacement cost of means of labor.

Obsolescence second type can be established by determining the replacement cost using the formula

Where From modern times, From lips– replacement cost of a modern and outdated machine; P modern, P mouth– performance of outdated and modern machines.

The essence of obsolescence is that the means of labor depreciate and lose value before the end of their physical service life.

Valuation of fixed assets

Fixed assets are accounted for and valued in physical and monetary forms. The in-kind estimate is the number of pieces of equipment, power consumption and other technical parameters. For example, if this is a building, then - cubic meters and square meters; road - length and width, etc. Physical assessment is used when calculating the need for fixed assets and is taken into account when calculating the production capacity of the enterprise.

Valuation is used more widely. When valuing fixed assets, the following are distinguished:

1)valuation at historical cost, which consists of the cost of acquisition (construction) of a fixed asset item. When calculating the initial cost, all costs associated with the acquisition of fixed assets are taken into account (excluding VAT):

– amounts paid to the supplier are usually equal to the price of the goods;

– transportation costs associated with the delivery of goods to the enterprise;

– installation and installation costs;

– payment for intermediary services;

– payment for consulting services, etc.:

PS = C + TR + M + Other services , (1)

where PS is the initial cost, rub.; T – amounts paid to the supplier, rub.; TR – transportation costs, rub.; M – installation and installation costs, rub.

In addition, the initial cost can be changed as a result of completion, additional equipment, reconstruction, modernization, technical re-equipment of the facility by the amount of completion, additional equipment, reconstruction, modernization;

2)valuation at replacement cost. Over time, the cost of previously acquired fixed assets may change, as a result of which the replacement cost can be calculated, which characterizes the cost of the fixed asset at current prices (in prices valid at the time of valuation).

Replacement cost (RC) is calculated using the formula:

BC = PS(BS) × TO P , (2)

where BS – book value, rub.; TO n – conversion factor, which shows how many times the cost of the object has changed.

Conversion factors may be increasing (if over the past period of time the value of fixed assets has increased, then TO n >1, for example, the value of buildings, as a rule, increases) and decreasing (if over the past period of time the value of fixed assets has decreased, then TO P<1, например, стоимость вычислительной техники, программного обеспечения с течением времени снижается).

Personnel of the organization

The labor resources of an enterprise are the main resource of each enterprise, the quality of selection and the efficiency of its use largely determine the results of the enterprise's production activities. At the level of an individual enterprise, instead of the term “labor, resources,” the terms “personnel” and “personnel” are more often used.

The personnel of an enterprise is usually understood as the main (staff) composition of the enterprise’s employees. Depending on the functions they perform, the company's personnel are divided into the following categories: core and auxiliary workers; managers; specialists; employees. The listed workers form (at production enterprises) industrial production personnel (PPP).

A profession is a set of special theoretical knowledge and practical skills necessary to perform a certain type of work in any industry.

A specialty is a type of activity within a given profession that has specific characteristics and requires special knowledge and skills from workers.

Qualification is a set of knowledge and practical skills that allow you to perform work of a certain complexity.

According to the level of qualification, workers can be divided into: unskilled, semi-skilled, qualified and highly qualified. The qualifications of workers are determined by ranks.

Managers are distributed across management structures and management levels. According to management structures, managers are divided into linear and functional, and according to management levels - into top, middle and lower levels.

Specialists are workers engaged in engineering, technical and economic work: engineers, economists, accountants, legal advisers, etc.

Employees are workers who prepare and process documentation, accounting and control, and business services: clerks, cashiers, timekeepers, bookkeepers, etc.

The ratio of the listed categories of workers to their total number, expressed as a percentage, is called the personnel structure. The personnel structure can also be determined by age, gender, level of education, work experience, qualifications and other characteristics.

In the practice of personnel accounting and planning, a distinction is made between attendance, payroll and average payroll.

Attendance is the minimum required number of workers who must come to work every day to complete the task on time.

Payroll - all permanent and temporary employees registered at the enterprise, both those currently performing work and those on regular vacations, business trips, performing government duties, who did not show up for work due to illness or any other reasons. The number of employees on the payroll can be established on a specific date.

The average payroll is determined by summing the payroll of employees for all calendar days of the period, including weekends and holidays, and dividing the resulting amount by the full calendar number of days of the period.

Real wage

The basis for remuneration is many principles that depend on the prevailing form of ownership in social production, state policy in ensuring the minimum wage, the level of development of the national economy, the national wealth of the country, etc.

The following can be named as the basic principles of remuneration for an individual organization::

· flexible tariff system as a regulatory basis for remuneration;

· determination of the average wage of workers above the minimum wage established by the state;

· maximum independence in matters of organization and remuneration;

· faster growth rates of labor productivity compared to the growth rates of wages;

· payment based on the final results of production and in accordance with the amount of labor expended; encouraging high quality products, labor, works and services;

· material interest of workers in increasing labor productivity and so on.

Pay systems

The employee remuneration system should be defined as the method of determining wages established in accordance with current legislation. Thus, the employee remuneration system presupposes the presence of criteria, defined in accordance with legislation, that determine the relationship between the amount of work performed by the employee and the amount of wages he receives.

In Part 1 of Art. 132 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the criteria for determining the amount of an employee’s salary are his qualifications, the complexity of the work performed, the quantity and quality of labor expended. The application of the listed criteria allows us to determine the employee remuneration system. There are several systems for remunerating workers.

Each organization, depending on the specifics of its activities, can choose (the most appropriate from an economic point of view and in order to motivate employees) remuneration systems. In particular, there are the following systems:

Tariff (time-based, piece-rate);

Tariff-free;

Mixed.

A commercial organization can develop its own system that does not contradict the legislation of the Russian Federation. But its conditions should not worsen the employee’s position in comparison with the conditions established by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (LC RF).

The adopted remuneration systems must be fixed in the remuneration regulations, collective agreement and (or) in employment contracts with specific employees.

The tariff system is the most common wage system.

The types of tariff system of remuneration are:

Time-based system (simple time-based and time-based premium);

Piecework system (direct piecework, piecework-progressive, piecework-premium, indirect piecework, piecework).

Forms of remuneration

There are the main forms of remuneration used in manufacturing enterprises:

· time-based (using monthly, daily and hourly tariff rates);

· piecework form of remuneration;

· their options: time-based bonus and piece-rate-bonus forms of remuneration.

For time-based payment, when hiring an employee, it is enough to indicate his work schedule, according to which the time worked will be taken into account. If personnel events change the work schedule, then such events must be registered with personnel movement documents.

For piecework payment, in addition to the work schedule to record time worked (it is used in other calculations), it is necessary to register the employee’s actual output on a monthly basis using piecework orders. In this case, it is necessary to pay attention to the date of completion of the work, which is indicated in the document, since when calculating piecework earnings, the output recorded during the actual period of validity of the piecework payment record is taken into account. That is, if a document confirming payment for vacation or sick leave is entered, then work orders for the employee registered during absence will not be automatically included in the amount to be accrued under the piecework payment line.

A variant of piecework is lump sum payment for a certain amount of work completed at a specified time.

The time-based form of remuneration is based on accounting for actual time worked. In this case, the time worked is not specifically recorded in the information base, but is calculated automatically as the amount of planned time that the employee should have worked according to the schedule, minus deviations from this schedule, for example, due to vacation or illness, entered by various deviation documents.

Organization of bonuses

To ensure the material interest of employees in improving the results of their work, enterprises use bonuses as one of the forms of their material incentives.

The main purpose of bonuses is to increase the efficiency of the enterprise by stimulating the labor activity of personnel. The organization of bonuses for employees of the enterprise is based on the following principles:

Fairness and validity of the size and differentiation of bonuses;

Material interest of employees in achieving the highest final results of labor activity;

A combination of individual and collective interest in the results of work;

Encouraging creative initiative, responsibility, achieving high quality labor, products, works and services;

Ease of determining the amount of bonus payments;

Making the connection between their work efforts and remuneration clear and easy for employees to understand;

Flexibility - changing the bonus system in accordance with changes in the goals and objectives of material incentives;

Publicity of encouragement as a combination of material and moral incentives to work.

Industrial enterprises independently develop regulations on bonuses for workers, which are agreed upon with the trade union organization and attached to the collective agreement.

Regulations on bonuses can be developed both for the enterprise and its structural divisions, and for certain categories of employees, positions, professions, qualification and professional groups.

The organization of bonuses at an enterprise primarily includes the selection of such basic elements that are reflected in the bonus regulations, such as indicators, conditions and frequency of bonuses, sources of bonus payments, establishment of the size of bonuses and the circle of persons subject to bonuses.

Bonus indicators must correspond to the types and tasks of production and really depend on the labor contribution of each employee and the team as a whole. The number of indicators should be minimal, but quite sufficient to ensure the relationship of bonuses with the main objectives of production, with the results of employee performance. They should not contradict each other: improvement of some indicators should not lead to deterioration of others.

Bonus indicators are usually divided into basic and additional. The main indicators are those that must be fulfilled and receive a bonus. If they are not met, the bonus will not be awarded. Additional indicators ensure that the main indicators are met, but if they are not met, the bonus amount is reduced.

16. In-house planning

Intra-company planning aims to:

a) determination of the main directions and proportions of production development, taking into account the material sources of its implementation and market demand;

b) increasing the efficiency of economic activity by ensuring optimal use of the capabilities and all types of resources of the enterprise.

Planning includes: determining the final and intermediate goals of the enterprise, identifying the tasks that need to be solved to achieve the goals, determining the means and methods for solving these problems, the required resources, their sources and method of distribution.

Planning objectives are formulated as follows:

1. Specification of the development goals of the enterprise and each of its divisions separately for the planned period

2. Definition, detailing and coordination of economic tasks of all departments that ensure the achievement of the goals of the enterprise.

3. Determining the timing and sequence of implementation of the tasks of the divisions to achieve the goals of the enterprise in business and its individual divisions (production departments, subsidiaries and other structural entities).

4. Determination and identification of material, labor and financial resources necessary to solve the assigned tasks and achieve the goals of the enterprise.

5. Ensuring coordination of scientific research, development, production and marketing of products.

6. Integration and coordination of the planning process with the marketing activities of the enterprise and other management functions (organization, control, motivation) in order to increase the validity of decisions made, constant adjustment and adaptation of production and sales indicators to market conditions (including ensuring operational accounting of specific demand and requirements for certain products).

7. Development of a set of measures to achieve specific goals and objectives of the enterprise, its production branches and subsidiaries, taking into account the capabilities and the most effective use of available resources.

Intra-company planning is based on identifying and forecasting consumer demand, analysis and assessment of available resources and prospects for the development of market conditions.

The need to ensure intra-company planning of the activities of a modern industrial enterprise is also due to the increasing socialization, concentration, specialization and cooperation of production carried out on an international scale.

17. Natural and cost indicators of products (works, services)

To account for and plan manufactured industrial products, natural, conditionally natural and cost indicators are used. These indicators are widely used in the statistical reporting of enterprises based on the results of their activities.

Natural indicators of products are expressed in certain natural units, combining certain physical properties measured by weight, volume, length, corresponding measures of weight, volume, length, etc. (kg, tons, cubic meters, meters, kilometers, etc.).

Accounting for production in physical terms cannot give a complete picture of the amount of production produced. In natural indicators, it is impossible to determine in one indicator the final value of production in the presence of a diverse range of manufactured products; it is also impossible to express the value of work in progress.

Conditionally natural indicators are close to natural indicators with the only difference being that different types of products are expressed in units of one specific product using conversion factors. These coefficients can be constructed either on the basis of the consumer value of the product, or on the basis of labor intensity, or on the basis of production costs, etc.

An example of using the consumer properties of a product to construct conversion coefficients is the conversion of various types of fuel into “standard fuel”, with a calorific value of 7,000 calories.

The conditional-natural method of accounting for products is characterized by the disadvantages of the natural method. Conditional natural indicators are used to obtain general indicators of the volume of more or less homogeneous products.

Cost (value) indicators are more acceptable as general indicators of the size and volume of products produced at a given enterprise or industry as a whole, as well as throughout the national economy.

By multiplying the number of products produced by their prices and summing up the resulting products, one obtains a general indicator of the quantity of products produced in value terms. Using this indicator, the volumes of semi-finished products produced, work in progress and other types of work performed by industrial enterprises are also taken into account. Valuation of the work of industrial enterprises in monetary terms involves recording the results of the activities of production structures on a certain date or within a certain period of time.

Thus, value indicators more fully than natural indicators reflect the total volume of consumer values ​​produced to meet the needs of the national economy. They make it possible to calculate the rates and proportions of industrial production, labor productivity, capital productivity, profit and other indicators.

There are a number of cost indicators - gross turnover, gross production, marketable products, sold products, clean products, standard-clean products, standard cost of processing, etc. Each of these indicators has its own economic essence, purpose, calculation methods, features, advantages and disadvantages .

Business breakeven

One of the categories of success is business break-even. This is the name of the state of a business in which profits exceed losses or are at least equal to them. To determine at what point a business will break even, that is, find the break-even point, it is necessary to calculate all expenses. The resulting value is the required minimum amount of your profit. You can achieve the desired level of income by increasing sales volumes or reducing costs.

In any business business breakeven is very important, since the start of a new business usually begins with a goal - to reach the break-even point, which will already indicate the successful conduct of the business, and then, with reasonable management of your own business, profits will only increase.

Any increase in sales requires attracting buyers, so if the consumer does not go to the businessman, then the businessman himself must go to the consumer. Moreover, we are talking not only about advertising, but also about distribution activities. Both require certain expenses, so you need to minimize them so that the final profit is not less than the total costs.

An economic entity in a market economy, its functions and tasks

Subjects of a market economy or economic entities (economic agents) – actors in the economy who independently make decisions and carry out economic actions.

The main subjects of economic activity in a market economy are: households; enterprises or business organizations; state.

This division of subjects, in essence, reflects the two main areas of economic activity of people. Household– a generalized element of the consumer sphere of the economy. Its main function in the economy: consumption of final products and services.

Households- this is the economic image of an average family running a separate household, owning joint property, receiving a common income and having an average stable expenditure structure; it is a convenient structural unit when describing the economic life of society. They strive to maximize the utility of purchased goods: they rank their needs and make expenses within the limits of the available amount of income.

Enterprises and the state are structural elements of the second main sphere of human activity in the field of economics - the sphere of business activity.

It is through this area that households earn income.

State(government institutions) are, as a rule, non-profit budgetary organizations that implement the functions of public administration of the country and regulation of the economy at various levels from national to local.

The goal of the state as an economic entity is to ensure a stable economic order and economic development of the country.

Enterprises or business organizations are mainly private firms of various economic statuses - from individual to large joint-stock companies.

Business – This is any type of direct activity for the purpose of generating income, involving the raising of one’s own funds, or indirect participation in such activities by investing one’s own capital in the business. In this sense, working as an employee in a government agency or working as an employee in a company is not a business, but owning shares or operating your own gas station is a business.

Business offers complete independence in making business decisions and corresponding responsibility for the results of these decisions.

The main function of business organizations is the production of the entire mass of goods and services and bringing them to the consumer. The goal of their activities is to maximize profits.

The given structure of economic entities does not reflect separate spheres of people’s participation in social production, but the distribution of each member of society in various spheres of economic life.

Order No. 1841

Coursework on the topic: “Economic subjects and their types”

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3

Chapter 1. Economic subjects…………………………………………...5

1. 1. Subjects of a market economy…………………………………...5

1. 2. Functions of subjects of a modern market economy and economic goals in a market economic system………………………..9

Chapter 2. Interests of economic entities……………………………..13

2. 1. Economic interests and economic mechanism…………13

2. 2. Economic interests of agents…………………………….16

Conclusion……………………………………………………………...22

List of sources used………………………………….25

Introduction

Economic agents include households (individuals and families), enterprises (firms) and the state (government bodies, government agencies), as well as non-profit organizations. This is the most general, somewhat arbitrary division.

The position and role of each economic agent is determined by its relationship to the factors of production that it owns.

Relevance of the topic of work. Market relations presuppose the decentralization of production, relatively independent decision-making and the implementation of economic activities by economic entities. At the same time, in the process of reforming the economic system of Russian society, the main goals of such transformations were proclaimed to be improving the quality of life of the population, eliminating one of the biggest shortcomings of the command-administrative economy - the rejection of the achievements of scientific and technological progress by the reproduction process, as well as increasing the efficiency of the system as a whole. . Russia's transition from deep recession to stabilization and economic growth calls for the need to identify factors that contribute to the consolidation and strengthening of this trend. The latter include improving the organization and management of production, using the achievements of scientific and technical progress in the reproduction process, as well as increasing labor productivity. Each of them is associated with the economic interests of economic entities, the coordination of which determines the solution of the assigned tasks.

The purpose of this work is to study economic entities and their interests.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

Consider the concept of subjects;

Consider the subjects of a market economy;

Study the functions of economic agents;

Analyze the interests of economic entities.

The object of research in this work is economic subjects, the subject is the market economy.

Chapter 1. Economic subjects

1. 1. Subjects of a market economy

A market is a system of interaction between seller and buyer.

The origin and development of the market system was due to two reasons:

1. the development of the division of labor, which made it possible and necessary to exchange, which resulted in purchase and sale with the appearance of money. Exchange became possible because, as a result of specialization, the manufacturer had a significant surplus of products. The division of labor leads to an increase in productivity, which, in turn, makes it possible to produce a given product in quantities greater than what the manufacturer himself requires;

2. private property.

A market economy is characterized by:

1. private property

2. freedom of choice

3. personal economic interests as the main motive for people’s behavior

4. competition

5. price mechanism coordinating economic relations

The market performs the following functions:

1. informational, through constantly changing prices, the market informs producers where and what products are in short supply and where and what products are produced in excess;

2. regulating, i.e. the market establishes proportionality in economic development, regulates the distribution of resources across industries and areas of the economy in such a way that the level and structure of production are as close as possible to the level and structure of needs;

3. stimulating, i.e. firms that are unable to improve technology, reduce production costs and improve their quality, cease to make a profit and even suffer losses;

4. sanitizing, i.e. the market clears social production of economically unstable, unviable economic units and, on the contrary, gives the green light to more entrepreneurial and efficient ones.

In modern conditions, the market system has been transformed from a self-regulating one into a regulated one, which has led to a complication of the subject structure of the market economy.

A household - an economic unit operating in the consumer sector of the economy - can consist of one or more persons. It ensures the production and reproduction of human capital, makes decisions independently, is the owner and supplier of any factor of production in a market economy, and strives for maximum satisfaction of personal needs (and not for increasing profits).

An enterprise (firm) is an economic unit that operates to generate income (profit), strives to maximize income, makes decisions independently, and uses factors of production to manufacture products for the purpose of selling them. It involves investing your own or borrowed capital in a business, which entails risk and responsibility. The enterprise (firm) spends the income received not just for personal consumption, but to expand production.

A bank is a financial and credit institution that regulates the movement of the money supply necessary for the normal functioning of the economy.

The state (government) is represented by various government agencies that exercise legal and political power to ensure, if necessary, control over economic entities and over the market to achieve public goals. Budgetary organizations that represent the state do not aim to make a profit, but implement the functions of state regulation of the economy.

Figure 1. General model of interaction between market economy subjects

The interaction of households, firms and the state can be represented by the economic circulation model.

The economic circulation model allows us to study the behavior of firms and households in the markets of production factors and consumer goods.

In the factor market, households act as sellers, offering labor, land, capital, and entrepreneurial skills to firms acting as buyers. Having acquired everything necessary to create consumer goods, firms carry out their production.

The second meeting of households with firms occurs in the market for consumer goods. But now their roles have changed: firms are the sellers, and households are the buyers. The movement along the outer circle of the diagram, along which the flow of goods moves, is closed.

But simultaneously with the movement of goods, there is a movement of cash flows. The movement of money begins with firms that are the owners of the starting money capital necessary for the acquisition of factors of production. Money given in exchange for factors of production acts as production costs. But, once in the hands of the owners of productive resources, money takes the form of income on factors of production, and when spent on the purchase of consumer goods, it appears in the form of household expenses. And finally, after firms sell the goods and services they produce, money acts as income to the owners of the firms.

The model shows that two oppositely directed flows move in the economy: the flow of goods and the flow of money spent on their acquisition. Both flows are continuous, flow simultaneously and represent the main element of the functioning mechanism of a market economy. An important consequence of the circular flow model is that the total sales of firms is equal to the total income of households.

1. 2. Functions of subjects of a modern market economy and economic goals in a market economic system

A distinctive feature of economic agents is the adoption and implementation of independent decisions in the field of economic activity.

The modern market economy is based on the interaction of the private and public sectors of the economy. Depending on the degree of intensity of impact on the economy and on the priority tasks solved by the state, the following models of a modern market economy are distinguished: socially oriented economy, mixed economy and corporate economy.

In the first model, the target orientation of government programs is related to protecting the interests of citizens, and the principles of economic regulation are expressed in long-term programs. The share of the public sector in the economy is 30%. (Germany) In a mixed economy, the state creates conditions for the development of entrepreneurship, using mainly tactical methods. The share of the public sector here is relatively small (USA).

The corporate economy presupposes the targeted orientation of government programs to protect the interests of large businesses and determine the main priorities (Japan, Sweden).

As for the Russian economy, it has historically relied on the primacy of either state, community, or public property, which determined the specificity of the main problems of modern market reforms.

If we evaluate the economic goals of the modern economic system on the scale of the entire society, they can be reduced to the following basic provisions:

1. Ensuring economic growth and a higher level and quality of life for the population.

2. Increasing the efficiency of using limited production resources throughout society, that is, achieving the best results at minimal cost.

3. Achieving full employment of the working population. Everyone who can and wants to work should be provided with jobs.

4. Stable price level. Constantly changing prices lead to changes in the behavior of people and businesses, creating tension and uncertainty in economic activity.

5. Economic freedom. All economic entities must have a high degree of freedom in their economic activities.

6. Fair distribution of income. We have already said that justice in distributive relations does not mean equalization. It is that equal capital and equal labor should provide equal income and that no group of the population should be kept in poverty while others are excessively luxurious.

7. Maintaining a reasonable ratio of exports and imports, that is, if possible, an active trade balance in international economic and financial relations.

These are, in general terms, the basics and characteristic features of a market economy.

Chapter 2. Interests of economic entities

2. 1. Economic interests and economic mechanism

Economic relations arise between people under the influence of economic interests. Economic interest is the conscious need of a person, a group of persons, or society as a whole for economic benefits.

Demanding satisfaction, needs give rise to economic interest. Under the influence of economic interests, people enter into economic relations with each other. Thus, the need to satisfy food needs forces people to engage in food production and enter into production, and then into distribution and exchange relations, as a result of which consumption relations arise, during which food needs are satisfied.

Thus, a whole chain of connections arises between needs and their satisfaction: need, awareness of economic interest, economic relations (relations of production, distribution and exchange) satisfaction of needs (relations of consumption). From this chain it is clear that economic interests create incentives for economic activity, acting as the driving force of the entire economic system.

There are three main types of economic interests: personal, group, or collective, and public. Including personal and group interests can be class, that is, express the interests of an entire class.

The specific content of the economic interests of individual people depends on their place in the system of economic relations, primarily property relations.

It is obvious that the economic interest of the owner of labor is different from the interest of the owner of large capital who hires him. Both are interested in maximizing the return on their property, but, as we will see later, the return on capital can be inversely related to the return on labor. This suggests that the interests of people and classes can conflict with each other.

For the economy as a functional system, the coincidence of all types of interests is important, when personal interest is part of the group interest, and group interest, including class interest, is part of the public interest. The divergence of interests leads to inefficient functioning of the economy and, ultimately, to its breakdown.

So, economic interest is a system of economic needs of economic entities (employee, corporation, cooperation, consumer, state). Reflecting the unity of all economic needs, interest, in contrast to needs oriented toward objective goals (the need for bread, shoes, a car, etc.), is aimed at economic relations and living conditions in general. Therefore, interest acts as a stimulus for the activity of an economic entity, determining its economic behavior and actions.

Incentives occupy a central place in the economic mechanism. In economics, an incentive appears as a stimulant of economic activity of subjects, based on a clear demonstration of the connection between the result of this activity and the degree of realization of the economic interests of subjects. Incentives can be applied to individuals, encouraging them to work productively, and to entire enterprises, encouraging them to produce certain goods.

By type, incentives are divided into tangible and intangible.

Material incentives are based on the opportunity to receive material goods and services as a reward for economic activity. Such incentives are also called economic. Non-material incentives are based on non-material rewards, which come in the form of moral or creative satisfaction from the results of economic activity. The work itself can provide such satisfaction if it is interesting and creatively meaningful. In addition, such incentives can be based on feelings of fear, pride, honor and other feelings not related to material needs. These incentives are also called non-economic.

By influencing the economic interests of people through a system of incentives, the economic mechanism coordinates their activities as autonomous subjects, ensuring the internal organization of the economy as a system. Under the influence of the economic mechanism, people find their place in the system of organizational and economic relations, and these relations themselves acquire a specific functional character, that is, they appear as relations between people performing certain economic functions.

The economic mechanism plays a special role in the sphere of distribution and exchange, where it provides communication between producers of various goods and their consumers. Through it, consumers make a kind of order to manufacturers. On the one hand, the economic mechanism ensures the identification of needs for goods for both consumer and production purposes, determines the priority of their satisfaction and, taking this into account, ensures the distribution of “orders” for the corresponding material goods and services between producers across divisions of social production, industries and enterprises. On the other hand, taking into account these “orders”, with the help of the economic mechanism, available resources are distributed, they are used as factors of production, and then the goods produced are distributed and delivered to consumers.

It is under the influence of the economic mechanism that producers receive answers to the main questions of the economy: what to produce and for whom? how and how much to produce? With the help of various incentives, he forces people to make a choice in favor of the production of certain goods, produce them in a certain quantity and send them to consumers. Thus, the economic mechanism provides a solution to problem No. 1 of any economy - the problem of choice: choosing directions for using limited resources, ways of using them, choosing directions for distributing products produced with their help.

2. 2. Economic interests of agents

The interests of economic agents are determined by their position in the economic system and the functions they perform.

If we consider directly the interests of economic entities, we can see that they (as well as their implementation) vary greatly depending on the type of economic entity, the volume, structure and nature of the use of its property. So, for example, the needs and interests of the state, as an economic entity, on the one hand, are associated with increasing production and consumption of society, since the state is the spokesman of its interests, on the other hand, with the interests and needs of state structures arising in the process of their functioning (as in economic resources, as well as in investment and consumer goods).

The interests of households vary greatly depending on the set of economic resources they supply to the market. Foreign economic entities include households, enterprises, and government agencies located outside the national economy in question. The latter can realize their interests within the framework of the economic system in relation to which they are foreign, which is caused by both global competition (in the field of production efficiency, level of profit margin, market price of natural and labor resources, etc.) and the process of international division of labor. The main difference between the interests of foreign business entities and domestic ones is that in the process of their implementation, greater importance is given to their own tasks, which often contradict the interests of the country within which their economic activities are carried out.

Households strive to maximize the utility of goods purchased with income; they rank their needs and spend within the budgets they have.

The decisions made by enterprises (firms) are ambiguous: they are determined not only by the desire to maximize profits, but also by other motives, for example, capturing and maintaining market share, expanding the scale of production, asserting economic power.

By performing functions that the market cannot implement, the state is called upon to ensure national interest and contribute to the growth of the nation’s wealth. The exclusive role of national interest, especially in transitional eras, is not always realized by members of society. But it is precisely this interest, directed towards solving the fundamental problems of a nation, a country in accordance with its position in the world, the availability of resources, the characteristics of the social structure, history and traditions, that is leading and determining.

At one time, even T. Veblen, with a certain degree of irony, noted that one should not imagine the “economic man” in the form of a mechanical ball, a kind of “general calculator of pleasures and burdens”, which is guided exclusively by monetary motives. “Economic man” is one of the most general concepts, a kind of model of a person in terms of his goals, means of achievement and knowledge (information) that guides him. Human behavior as a consumer and as a participant in production is very ambiguous. Economic interests are one of the components of his interests, representing a rather complex and contradictory system. It should be borne in mind that in addition to purely personal interests, people are guided by the interests of the collective, village or city, region in which they live. In the decisions and actions of people there are also broader interests - national, society as a whole.

The main factor determining the interdependence of the interests of economic entities is the social nature of production, since many economic connections are found at any level. The integrating function of the social nature of production is determined by the social division of labor and manifests itself in the vertical aspect, connecting subject-elements into a single whole (subject of a higher level), connecting the private interests of each of them with the general interests of the subject-system; and horizontally - thanks to relationships of the “producer-consumer” type between individual economic entities, which is predetermined by the economic division of their functions.

The interdependence of the interests of economic agents is dictated by the need to increase production efficiency, which is achieved through the social division of labor. As a result, the specialization of individual subjects deepens. In modern conditions, only very large business units can carry out a full production cycle. The deepening of the process of division of labor causes an increase in the number of subjects of production relations, their specialization in the provision of individual products for industrial and consumer purposes, as well as resources, which causes the lengthening of technological chains, the complication of the process of forming and improving part of the resources (for example, labor), and a qualitative change in the ways of satisfying needs . As a result, to realize each ultimate interest, the direct participation of an increasing number of economic entities is necessary, each of which, in turn, has its own needs.

The main objective reasons for the contradictions in the economic interests of economic entities are the common source of economic resources used to satisfy their needs, the limitations of the latter and the benefits produced on their basis, and the economic isolation of economic entities. Thus, we can conclude that the objective causes of contradictions in the system of economic interests are caused by a single source of realization of these interests and contradictions between the types, forms and types of interests themselves.

The increase in the volume of social production serves as the main source of the constant deepening of the degree of realization of interests. Economic growth is, first of all, an increase in production efficiency based on limited economic resources; it does not include the efficiency of the processes of distribution, exchange and consumption. Meanwhile, interest is realized along with the satisfaction of needs, which are its material basis. And the quality of this process is determined by the efficiency of resource use not only in the production phase, but also at all stages of the reproduction process - from production to consumption. An additional factor in the connection between the realization of the interests of society and economic growth within the framework of its economic system is the reproduction of resources at a qualitatively new level.

Conclusion

The subject structure of a market economy is a system of relationships between many subjects, expressing their goals, equal but mutually consistent economic interests, nature, forms of organization and interaction regarding the movement of goods and services.

The subjects of a market economy are: entrepreneurs; workers selling their labor; end consumers; owners of loan capital; owners of securities; traders, etc. The main subjects of the market economy are usually divided into four groups: household; enterprise (firm), bank and state (government).

The position and role of each economic agent is determined by its relationship to the factors of production that it owns. Some have capital and have economic power, determine forms of management, participate in management, and engage in entrepreneurial activities. Others control only their own labor force; their ability to influence the organization of production, distribution of income, and participation in management is limited.

Households usually include those who carry out operations related to housekeeping, i.e. mainly consumption. It is assumed that all economic resources are ultimately owned by households.

They receive income by providing economic factors - labor, capital, land, etc., which they have, in other words, by providing factor services.

The income received is used by them to purchase necessary goods, as well as to create savings. As consumers, households are independent, i.e. they have the right to make decisions independently, but this independence is limited by the size of their income and the regulatory system that exists in society.

Enterprises (firms) are engaged in entrepreneurial, commercial activities, the purpose of which is to make a profit. Non-profit organizations perform somewhat specific functions in society, for example, charitable foundations, trade union organizations, sports societies, and business associations. Their main task is to directly satisfy people's needs, and not to make a profit. Thus, the goal of non-profit organizations in the field of sports is the physical development of the individual and the training of athletes.

Although the main functions of the state are to ensure public needs and security, it has always played an important role in the economic life of society. The state actively intervenes in the economy using various forms and methods. There are various indicators and criteria for the economic activity of the state, among them - the share of government spending in GDP; share of taxes in GDP; the size of state property and products produced by state enterprises.

Economic entities are elements of an open system, in the process of functioning of which there is a change in both the external and internal environment in relation to them. Therefore, each of them is characterized by its own needs. These needs are directly related to economic interests.

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