Post on the topic of the Holy Roman Empire. Holy Roman Empire: birth and death. Papacy and Hohenstaufens
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HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE(962-1806), founded in 962 by the German king Otto I, a feudal-theocratic state formation with a complex hierarchy. According to Otto, this should have revived the empire created by Charlemagne in 800. The idea of \u200b\u200bcommon Roman Christian unity, which was present in the Roman Empire itself since its Christianization, ie. from the era of Constantine the Great (d. 337), to the 7th century. has been largely forgotten. However, the church, which was under the strongest influence of Roman laws and institutions, did not forget about it. At one time, St. Augustine undertook in a treatise About the city of God(De Civitate Dei) a critical development of pagan ideas about a universal and eternal monarchy. Medieval thinkers interpreted the doctrine of the city of God in a political aspect, more positively than Augustine himself implied. They were encouraged to do so by the comments of the Church Fathers on The book of Daniel, according to which the Roman Empire is the last of the great empires, and it will perish only with the advent of the Antichrist. The Roman Empire became a symbol of the unity of Christian society.
The term "Holy Roman Empire" itself appeared rather late. Charlemagne, immediately after his coronation in 800, enjoyed the long and awkward title (soon discarded) "Charles, His Serene Highness Augustus, the crowned, great and peace-loving emperor, ruler of the Roman Empire." Subsequently, the emperors, from Charlemagne to Otto I, called themselves simply "Emperor Augustus" (imperator augustus), without any territorial concretization (it was assumed that over time, the entire former Roman Empire would enter the state, ultimately - the entire peace). Otto II is sometimes referred to as "Emperor Augustus of the Romans" (Romanorum imperator augustus), and since Otto III this is an indispensable title. The phrase "Roman Empire" (lat. Imperium Romanum) as the name of the state began to be used from the middle of the 10th century, and finally took root in 1034 (one should not forget that the Byzantine emperors considered themselves the successors of the Roman Empire, so the assignment of this name by the German kings led to diplomatic complications). The "Holy Empire" (Latin Sacrum Imperium) is found in the documents of Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa since 1157. Since 1254, the full designation "Holy Roman Empire" (Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium), the same name in German (Heiliges Römisches Reich) is found in the German sources of Emperor Charles IV, and since 1442 the words "German nation" (Deutscher Nation, lat. Nationis Germanicae) are added to it - at first to distinguish the German lands proper from the "Roman Empire" as a whole. The decree of Emperor Frederick III of 1486 on "universal peace" refers to the "Roman Empire of the German nation", and the decree of the Cologne Reichstag of 1512 used the final form "Holy Roman Empire of the German nation", which existed until 1806.
Carolingian emperors.
The medieval theory of the divine state originated from the earlier Carolingian period. The structure created in the second half of the 8th century. Pepin and his son Charles the Great of the Frankish kingdom included most of Western Europe, which made him fit for the role of guardian of the interests of the Holy See, replacing the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire in this role. Having crowned Charlemagne with the imperial crown on December 25, 800, Pope Leo III severed ties with Constantinople and created a new Western empire. Thus, the political interpretation of the Church as a continuation of the ancient Empire received a concrete form of expression. It was based on the idea that a single political ruler should rise above the world, acting in harmony with the universal Church, both of them having their own spheres of influence established by God. This holistic idea of \u200b\u200bthe "divine state" was realized almost in full under Charlemagne, and although the empire collapsed under his grandchildren, the tradition continued to persist in the minds, which led in 962 to the establishment by Otto I of that entity, which later became known as the Holy Roman Empire ...
The first Germanic emperors.
Otto, as the German king, had power over the most powerful state in Europe, and therefore he was able to revive the empire, repeating what Charlemagne had already done. However, Otto's possessions were significantly smaller than those that belonged to Charlemagne: these included mainly the lands of Germany, as well as northern and central Italy; limited sovereignty extended to uncivilized border areas. The imperial title did not give the kings of Germany much additional authority, although in theory they stood above all the royal houses of Europe. The emperors ruled in Germany using already existing administrative mechanisms, and very little interfered in the affairs of their feudal vassals in Italy, where their main support was the bishops of the Lombard cities. Beginning in 1046, Emperor Henry III received the right to appoint popes, just as he held in his hands the appointment of bishops in the German church. He used his power to introduce in Rome the ideas of church government in accordance with the principles of canon law (the so-called Cluny Reform), developed in the area lying on the border between France and Germany. After Henry's death, the papacy turned the principle of freedom of the "divine state" against the authority of the emperor in matters of church government. Pope Gregory VII asserted the principle of the superiority of spiritual power over secular power and, within the framework of what went down in history as the "struggle for investiture", which lasted from 1075 to 1122, began an attack on the emperor's right to appoint bishops.
Hohenstaufens on the imperial throne.
The compromise reached in 1122 did not lead to final clarity on the supremacy of the state and the church, and under Frederick I Barbarossa, the first emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, who took the throne 30 years later, the struggle between the papal throne and the empire flared up again, albeit in a specific the reason for it was now the disagreement about the ownership of the Italian lands. Under Frederick, the term “Sacred” was added to the words “Roman Empire” for the first time, which indicated the conviction of the sanctity of the secular state; this concept was further substantiated during the revival of Roman law and the revitalization of contacts with the Byzantine Empire. This was the period of the greatest prestige and power of the empire. Frederick and his successors centralized the system of government in the territories they owned, conquered Italian cities, established feudal suzerainty over states outside the empire, and, as the German advance eastward, extended their influence in this direction as well. In 1194 the Kingdom of Sicily passed to the Hohenstaufens - through Constance, daughter of King Roger II of Sicily and wife of Emperor Henry VI, which led to the complete encirclement of the papal possessions by the lands of the Holy Roman Empire.
The decline of the empire.
The power of the empire was weakened by the civil war that erupted between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens after the untimely death of Henry in 1197. Under Innocent III, the papal throne dominated Europe until 1216, even insisting on its right to resolve disputes between applicants for the imperial throne. After the death of Innocent, Frederick II returned the imperial crown to its former greatness, but was forced to leave the German princes to do whatever they wanted in their lands: having renounced the supremacy in Germany, he focused all his attention on Italy in order to strengthen his position in the struggle here. with the papal throne and cities under the rule of the Guelphs. Shortly after Frederick's death in 1250, the papacy, with the help of the French, finally defeated the Hohenstaufens. The decline of the empire can be seen at least in the fact that in the period from 1250 to 1312 there were no coronations of emperors. Nevertheless, the empire existed in one form or another for more than five centuries, thanks to its connection with the German royal throne and the vitality of the imperial tradition. Despite the constantly renewed attempts of the French kings to gain imperial dignity, the emperor's crown invariably remained in German hands, and the attempts of Pope Boniface VIII to diminish the status of imperial power sparked a movement in its defense. However, the glory of the empire remained mainly in the past, and despite the efforts of Dante and Petrarch, the representatives of the mature Renaissance turned away from the obsolete ideals of which she was the embodiment. The sovereignty of the empire was now limited to Germany alone, since Italy and Burgundy fell away from it, and it received a new name - the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. The last ties with the papal throne were interrupted by the end of the 15th century, when the German kings made it a rule to take the title of emperor without going to Rome to receive the crown from the hands of the pope. In Germany itself, the power of the princes increased, which happened at the expense of the rights of the emperor. Beginning in 1263, the principles of election to the German throne were sufficiently defined, and in 1356 they were consolidated by the Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV. The seven electors (electors) used their influence to make demands on the emperors, which greatly weakened the central authority.
Habsburg emperors.
Beginning in 1438, the imperial crown was in the hands of the Austrian Habsburgs, who, following the general tendency characteristic of Germany, sacrificed national interests in the name of the greatness of the dynasty. In 1519, King Charles I of Spain was elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire under the name Charles V, uniting Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Sicily and Sardinia under his rule. In 1556 Charles abdicated the throne, after which the Spanish crown passed to his son Philip II. Charles's successor as Holy Roman Emperor was his brother Ferdinand I. During the 15th century. the princes unsuccessfully tried to strengthen the role of the imperial Reichstag (at which electors, lesser princes, and imperial cities were represented) at the expense of the emperor. Occurred in the 16th century. The Reformation destroyed all hopes of rebuilding the old empire, as it resulted in the emergence of secularized states and religious strife. The emperor's power became decorative, the meetings of the Reichstag turned into trivial congresses of diplomats, and the empire degenerated into a loose alliance of many small principalities and independent states. On August 6, 1806, the last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Franz II, who had already become Emperor of Austria Franz I in 1804, renounced the crown and thus ended the existence of the empire. By this time, Napoleon had already proclaimed himself the true successor of Charlemagne, and political changes in Germany had deprived the empire of its last support.
| CAROLINGIAN EMPERORS AND EMPERORS HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 1 |
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| Reign 2 | Rulers | Inheritance 3 | Years of life |
| CAROLINGIAN EMPERORS | |||
| 800–814 | Charles I the Great | Son of Pepin the Short; king of the francs from 768; crowned in 800 | OK. 742-814 |
| 814–840 | Louis I the Pious | Charlemagne's son; crowned co-emperor in 813 | 778–840 |
| 840–855 | Lothair I | Son of Louis I; co-emperor with 817 | 795–855 |
| 855–875 | Louis II | Son of Lothar I, co-emperor since 850 | OK. 822-875 |
| 875–877 | Charles II the Bald | Son of Louis I; king of the West Franco kingdom (840-877) | 823–877 |
| 881–887 | Charles III the Fat | Son of Louis II the German and his successor; crowned 881; became king of the West Franco kingdom ca. 884; removed and killed | 839–888 |
| 887–899 | Arnulf Carinthian | Illegal son of King Carloman of Bavaria and Italy, son of Louis II of Germany; elected king of the east francs in 887; crowned in 896 | OK. 850-899 |
| 900–911 | Louis the Child * | Arnulf's son; elected German king in 900 | 893–911 |
| FRANCO HOUSE | |||
| 911–918 | Conrad I * | Son of Konrad, Count Langau; Duke of Franconia, elected as German king | ? –918 |
| SAXON DYNASTY | |||
| 919–936 | Henry I the Birdman * | Son of Otto the Most Serene, Duke of Saxony, elected German king | OK. 876-936 |
| 936–973 | Otto I the Great | Son of Henry I; crowned in 962 | 912–973 |
| 973–983 | Otto II | Son of Otto I | 955–983 |
| 983–1002 | Otto III | Son of Otto II, crowned 996 | 980–1002 |
| 1002–1024 | Henry II Saint | Great-grandson of Henry I; crowned in 1014 | 973–1024 |
| FRANCONIAN DYNASTY | |||
| 1024–1039 | Conrad II | Son of Heinrich, Count of Speyer; descendant of Otto the Great; crowned 1027 | OK. 990-1039 |
| 1039–1056 | Henry III the Black | Son of Konrad II; crowned 1046 | 1017–1056 |
| 1056–1106 | Henry IV | Son of Henry III; under the tutelage of regents up to 1066; crowned in 1084 | 1050–1106 |
| 1106–1125 | Henry V | Son of Henry IV; crowned 1111 | 1086–1125 |
| SAXON DYNASTY | |||
| 1125–1137 | Lothar II (III) | Saxon or Suplinburg; crowned 1133 | 1075–1137 |
| THE GOGENSTAUFEN DYNASTY | |||
| 1138–1152 | Conrad III * | Duke of Franconian, grandson of Henry IV | 1093–1152 |
| 1152–1190 | Frederick I Barbarossa | Nephew of Conrad III; crowned 1155 | OK. 1122-1190 |
| 1190–1197 | Henry VI | Son of Friedrich Barbarossa; crowned 1191 | 1165–1197 |
| 1198–1215 | Otto IV | Son of Henry the Lion; fought against Philip of Swabia, also elected German king; crowned 1209 | about 1169 / about 1175-1218 |
| 1215–1250 | Frederick II | Son of Henry VI; crowned 1220 | 1194–1250 |
| 1250–1254 | Conrad IV * | Son of Frederick II | 1228–1254 |
| 1254–1273 | Interregnum | Richard of Cornwall and Alphonse X of Castile elected as German kings; not crowned | |
| THE HABSBURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1273–1291 | Rudolph I * | Son of Albrecht IV, Earl of Habsburg | 1218–1291 |
| THE NASSAUI DYNASTY | |||
| 1292–1298 | Adolf * | Son of Walram II of Nassau; elected as German king, deposed and fell in battle | OK. 1255-1298 |
| THE HABSBURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1298–1308 | Albrecht I * | Eldest son of Rudolf I of Habsburg; killed by nephew | 1255–1308 |
| LUXEMBOURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1308–1313 | Henry VII | Son of Henry III, Count of Luxembourg; crowned 1312 | 1274/75–1313 |
| 1314–1347 | Louis IV of Bavaria | Son of Louis II, Duke of Bavaria; elected together with Frederick the Handsome, whom he defeated and captured; crowned 1328 | 1281/82–1347 |
| LUXEMBOURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1347–1378 | Charles IV | Son of John (Jan), King of Bohemia; crowned 1355 | 1316–1378 |
| 1378–1400 | Wenceslas (Wenceslas) | Son of Charles IV; king of Bohemia; displaced | 1361–1419 |
| PFALZIAN DYNASTY | |||
| 1400–1410 | Ruprecht * | Elector Palatinate | 1352–1410 |
| LUXEMBOURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1410–1411 | Yost * | Nephew of Charles IV; Margrave of Moravian and Brandenburg, elected together with Sigismund | 1351–1411 |
| 1410–1437 | Sigismund I | Son of Charles IV; King of Hungary and Bohemia; elected for the first time together with Jost, and after his death - again; crowned 1433 | 1368–1437 |
| THE HABSBURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1438–1439 | Albrecht II * | Sigismund's son-in-law | 1397–1439 |
| 1440–1493 | Frederick III | Son of Ernest the Iron, Duke of Austria; crowned 1452 | 1415–1493 |
| 1493–1519 | Maximilian I | Son of Frederick III | 1459–1519 |
| 1519–1556 | Charles V | Grandson of Maximilian I; king of Spain as Charles I (1516-1556); abdicated | 1500–1558 |
| 1556–1564 | Ferdinand I | Brother of Charles V | 1503–1564 |
| 1564–1576 | Maximilian II | Son of Ferdinand I | 1527–1576 |
| 1576–1612 | Rudolph II | Son of Maximilian II | 1552–1612 |
| 1612–1619 | Matvey | Brother of Rudolph II | 1557–1619 |
| 1619–1637 | Ferdinand II | Son of Charles, Duke of Styria | 1578–1637 |
| 1637–1657 | Ferdinand III | Son of Ferdinand II | 1608–1657 |
| 1658–1705 | Leopold I | Son of Ferdinand III | 1640–1705 |
| 1705–1711 | Joseph I | Son of Leopold I | 1678–1711 |
| 1711–1740 | Charles VI | Brother of Joseph I | 1685–1740 |
| WITTELSBACH DYNASTY (BAVARIAN HOUSE) | |||
| 1742–1745 | Charles VII | Elector of Bavaria; became emperor as a result of the War of the Austrian Succession | 1697–1745 |
| HABSBURGHO-LOTHARING DYNASTY | |||
| 1745–1765 | Franz I Stephen | Son of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine; ruled with his wife Maria Theresa (1717-1780) in 1740-1765 | 1708–1765 |
| 1765–1790 | Joseph II | Son of Franz I and Maria Theresa; ruled with his mother from 1765 to 1780 | 1741–1790 |
| 1790–1792 | Leopold II | Son of Franz I and Maria Theresa | 1747–1792 |
| 1792–1806 | Franz II | Son of Leopold II, last Holy Roman Emperor; first to take the title of Emperor of Austria (as Franz I) | 1768–1835 |
| * Was proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor, but never crowned. 1 What later became known as the Holy Roman Empire began with the coronation of Otto I in Rome in 962. 2 Dates of actual rule on the throne. Beginning with Henry II, Germanic kings also received the title of Roman king upon accession to the throne. This gave them the authority to exercise imperial prerogatives, although usually their coronation as emperors took place several years after their election as German king. In 1452 the last coronation of the emperor (Frederick III) in Rome took place, and in 1530 - the last coronation (Charles V in Bologna) of the emperor by the pope. Since then, the title of emperor was acquired by German kings without being crowned by the pope. 3 The coronation year is indicated as the coronation by the pope as emperor. |
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The Holy Roman Empire, in short, is a complex state association that existed from 962 to 1806 and represented the largest state formation in Central Europe. It included up to a hundred territorial entities at different times. Founder - Emperor Otto I. He wanted to revive the great empire that was in the days of Charlemagne.
In the 11th century, during its heyday, the empire included the Germanic, Italian, Czech lands, as well as the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Burgundy.
The name "Sacred" was added to the name of the country by Emperor Frederick I in the 12th century, thus indicating its Divine origin. Since 1254, this designation has been finally fixed. It must be said that the Byzantine emperors also rightfully considered themselves the successors of the Roman Empire, so a difficult political situation arose.
The center of the empire was Germany, which at that time was a great many principalities. Emperors did not have more authority than other European rulers, although in theory the title placed them above other royal dynasties. They interfered very little in the affairs of the rest of their vassal lands.
The Holy Roman Empire, in short, has never been a nation-state, like France, for example. Rather, it combined the forms of federation and confederation, since it included free cities, semi-independent counties and principalities, and small knightly possessions. The power of the emperor was not hereditary, but elective. 
The main problem for the emperors was to maintain power over such a vast territory. At the same time, they had to repel the aggression from the Arabs and Byzantium and suppress the uprisings in Italy. Therefore, most of the time the rulers of the empire were outside the German lands.
In the 15th century, the Habsburg dynasty came to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, which ruled until the disappearance of the state.
Starting from the 17th century, the power of the emperor in the state became nominal. There were attempts by some rulers to change the situation and return back positions of power, but these aspirations were suppressed by the princes. The last ruler of the empire was Franz II. Having lost in the war with Napoleon, he was forced to abdicate in 1806. At the same time, he freed all principalities and state institutions from their obligations to the empire. This was the end of the history of the Holy Roman Empire.
"HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE" 962-1806 (from the end of the 15th century. "The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation"), founded by the German king Otto I, who subdued the North. and Wed. Italy (with Rome). It also included the Czech Republic, Burgundy (Arelat), the Netherlands, the Swiss lands, and others. The emperors pursued an aggressive policy, mainly in the south (Italy) and east (the lands of the Polabian Slavs), at the end. 11-13 centuries. fought with the popes for investiture, for Italy. Gradually, the power of the emperors became nominal. Italy was lost already in the middle. 13th century; Germany (which occupied a dominant position in the empire) disintegrated into territorial principalities. The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 consolidated the empire's transformation into a conglomerate of independent states. It was finally eliminated during the Napoleonic wars.
The Holy Roman Empire is a medieval European state entity founded in 962 by the German king Otto I and existed until 1806.
Under the first representatives of the Saxon dynasty, Henry I (919-936) (hereinafter, the years of government are indicated) and Otto I (936-973), a single German state was formed and strengthened, and royal power was strengthened. Henry I managed to conquer Lorraine from France and to a large extent subjugate the German dukes striving for complete independence. In 936 Otto I without difficulty received the throne of his father and was recognized as king in all five Germanic duchies - Franconia, Saxony, Swabia, Bavaria, Lorraine. From the very beginning, Otto I strove for the same sovereign power that Charlemagne had. That is why his coronation took place in Aachen - the capital of the empire of Charlemagne, where the remains of the emperor rested. Continuing the struggle with the dukes, Otto I tried to turn them into officials. Otto I opposed the separatism (striving for isolation) of the dukes with his episcopal system. The king distributed land grants to the church, giving her broad political rights. The church received the right to judge the dependent population. Under the control of bishops and abbots were transferred territories withdrawn from the duchies. Church institutions turned into state bodies, moreover, completely subordinate to the king, since all episcopal and abbey positions were at his disposal. Having strengthened his position in the country, Otto I strengthened the defense of Germany against the Hungarians, who had long been vexing with their raids, and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Lech River near Augsburg. The victory sharply increased the authority of the German king. Less successful were the attempts of Otto I to conquer the Slavic lands. Many Slavic tribes managed to defend their independence. Failures in the east forced the king to change the direction of foreign policy and turn to the south. This turn in many ways predetermined the fate of the Holy Roman Empire.
To the south, Otto I was attracted by the desire to subjugate the papacy and thereby establish complete domination over the Roman Catholic Church, the desire to conquer politically fragmented Italy and create a semblance of the empire of Charlemagne and even the ancient Roman Empire.
It was not by chance that the German king became the bearer of the idea of \u200b\u200ba "Roman World Power". Compared with other European monarchs - his contemporaries - Otto I had the most powerful power in his country. Striving for conquests and acquisitions, the German nobility supported the intentions of their king.
In 951, Otto I made the first campaign in Italy, captured Lombardy and assumed the title of King of the Lombards. After 10 years, he made a new trip to Italy. Busy with the struggle with the Italian feudal lords, Pope John XII could not but satisfy the ambitious claims of Otto I. In 962, the Pope crowned Otto I in Rome with the imperial crown. So the tradition of the "World Roman Power", which had begun to fade away, was restored and the Holy Roman Empire arose.
The newly-born state was quite an artificial formation. The empire had neither a common socio-economic base, nor national unity. But in the ideas of contemporaries, its existence was completely justified. "The Eternal City" again came to the fore of world history, and this stage was fanned by the holiness of the Catholic Church. The expression of that time is indicative: "As long as the Colosseum (the largest amphitheater in Rome) is intact, Rome will live, when the Colosseum falls, Rome will fall, and when Rome falls, the whole world will fall."
In territorial terms, the Ottonian empire was not inferior even to the Carolingian. In the X-XI centuries. it consisted of two-thirds of the territory of Italy, Germany, Burgundy (entered at the end of the specified period), Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, Hungary, Denmark.
An important role in the position of the Holy Roman Empire was played by the relationship of the emperors with the popes. Already Otto I introduced the obligatory oath of the Pope to the emperor, which was an expression of the subordination of the papacy to the empire. At the same time, receiving the crown from the hands of the Pope made the emperor dependent on the papal throne and fraught with danger for the future of the empire.
The first friction with the papacy arose already with the emperor Otto I. He was forced to remove the obedient, but soon outraged by Ottonian tutelage, Pope John XII and put the faithful Leo VIII on the papal throne. Otto I and his successors managed to temporarily (10th century - first half of the 11th century) establish the actual rule of the emperors over the popes, which strengthened the power of the former. The strengthening of this power was also facilitated by the creation of special bodies in the annexed and conquered regions of the empire: a Special Chancellery for Italy was created, the posts of chancellor, counts palatine and imperial envoys were introduced, governors were appointed to Burgundy. Later, Frederick I tried to put his officials, called "podestas", over the Lombard cities.
Otto I had to conflict with Byzantium, which did not want to recognize the newly appeared "Roman emperor". However, in the end, a compromise was found, crowned by the marriage of the son of Otto I and the Byzantine princess Theophano.
After the death of Otto I, the throne passed to his 17-year-old son Otto II (973-983), who was crowned the imperial crown at the age of 12. Continuing his father's policy, Otto II successfully overcame the resistance of the discontented part of the German nobility, fought with France over Lorraine, and made a traditional campaign in Italy. The emperor took part in the war for southern Italy with the Sicilian Arabs, who were supported by Byzantium. During this war, Otto II miraculously escaped Arab captivity, when the German army was unexpectedly attacked by light Arab cavalry and was almost completely destroyed. Otto II fled to a Greek ship, but was nearly captured by the Byzantines. He barely managed to swim to the shore. But this did not cool the emperor's warlike fervor. Military plans of Otto II in southern Italy were destroyed only by death.
When Otto II died, his son Otto III was only 3 years old. In Germany, the struggle for custody of the infant emperor, already crowned in Aachen, unfolded. Guardianship gave the right to power. The winner was Theophano, who ruled like a queen mother. Feofano showed an extraordinary political and diplomatic talent, pursuing a rather energetic domestic and foreign policy. She steadily steered the ship of the empire along the course charted by her father-in-law and husband. On the documents Theophano signed: "Theophano, by God's grace the Empress" or even "Theophanius, by God's grace the Emperor." After her death, the 60-year-old grandmother of Otto III, Adelheid, came to the throne, who took care of her grandson until 994, when at the age of 14 he began to independently rule the empire.
Otto III was a fairly educated youth for his age. He spoke German, Italian, Latin and Greek, was inclined towards daydreaming and religious asceticism (rejection of goods and asceticism). The young emperor dreamed of recreating the ancient Roman Empire in all its glory as a world Christian state. Otto III presented himself as an ascetic, destined by heaven for this great purpose; Germany seemed to him a remote province, and Rome - a place from where he should rule the whole world.
In 996, Otto III undertook a coronation campaign to Italy, which was distinguished by its special splendor. The emperor placed his cousin on the papal throne that was freed at this time, who crowned Otto. His imperial title - "the most august emperor of the Romans" - was equal in importance to the title of the Byzantine emperor. Instead of a wax seal, a lead medallion was hung on the documents of Otto III, on one side of which was the profile of Charlemagne, and on the other - a shield with a banner and the inscription "Revival of the Roman Empire". Later, a seal was made showing the profile of Otto III himself and the inscription "Golden Rome". To fulfill his claims to the role of the successor of the ancient Roman emperors, Otto III had to constantly stay in the capital - in the imperial palace, which, at his behest, was built on the Aventine Hill in Rome. On its facade there was an inscription "Sacred Palace". The imperial court was expanded and some new positions and titles were introduced for Italy and the "provinces". The administration of Rome and the Roman region was in charge of the Roman patrician. The prefect was in charge of coastal defense against the Saracens and Byzantines. The young emperor's exuberant imagination portrayed the revived Roman Empire as a kind of administrative entity that included Italy, southern Italian Byzantine regions and Germany. Other Western and Central European countries had to surround this empire as its "friends" and "allies". At the head of these allied and dependent states were to be co-rulers and imperial patricians. The pope was assigned (according to the ancient Roman and Byzantine tradition) the role of the emperor's assistant in managing the church. Unlike his predecessors, who made military campaigns to Italy and Rome in order to be crowned and renew their domination over the country, Otto III, while in Rome, arranged trips and campaigns in the provinces of his largely invented empire. During one of these trips to Germany, the emperor visited the tomb of Charlemagne in Aachen. Otto III ordered to break open the stone floor of the temple in the place where, according to rumors, Charlemagne was buried, and to dig until the tomb is found. When it was excavated and opened, Otto III took off the gold cross hanging on the neck of the corpse and took the imperishable royal robes, with the help of which the emperor hoped to exalt his dignity.
Life has shown the isolation of Otto III's imperial ideas from reality. As soon as he left the "eternal city" for a year and a half, on his return he was greeted not by popular jubilation, but by an uprising, which forced the emperor to flee from Rome to Ravenna. And soon the 22-year-old emperor fell ill and died.
After the death of Otto III, Henry II (1002-1024) emerged victorious from the dynastic struggle. Unlike the enthusiastic Otto III, whom death saved from the uprising of the disgruntled German nobility, Henry II was a pragmatic (who valued only practically useful results) politician. Henry II understood and implemented the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Holy Roman Empire differently in real politics. Henry II proclaimed "the revival of the Frankish (Germanic) state", restored and strengthened the episcopal system of Otto I, got along with the German feudal lords, pursued an active, although not very successful Eastern policy, took several steps towards the future annexation of Burgundy. In 1013, Henry II undertook his "coronation" campaign in Italy, which, after the death of Otto III, seemed to have been lost to the Germans. Italy's belonging to the Holy Roman Empire was reaffirmed. Henry II, who died in 1024, was the last representative of the Saxon dynasty, which was replaced by the Franconian dynasty (1024-1125).
The emperors of the new dynasty were solving old problems. Conrad II (1024-1039) showed the ability of a great statesman and a firm politician. Despite his illiteracy, he was endowed with a natural mind and knew how to appreciate the advice of educated people. Unsuccessfully, Conrad II strove for the state unification of Germany and the elimination of feudal fragmentation. He managed to incorporate the Kingdom of Burgundy into the empire. With the help of several campaigns, he was able to keep in check Italy, constantly falling away from the empire. The reign of the son of Conrad II - Henry III (1039-1056) was also successful. It was a happy time for the Holy Roman Empire. However, clouds were already beginning to gather over her. The dissatisfied German princes raised their heads, the international situation worsened. After the death of his father, the 6-year-old King of Germany, Henry IV (1056-1106), was under the tutelage of his mother Agnes, who tried to continue the political course of Henry III. In 1062 he fell under the tutelage of princes, and only in 1066 the 16-year-old monarch began to independently govern the state. Fate prepared for him difficult trials. By the second half of the XI century. the situation in Europe has changed. In Germany, large feudal lords who refused to obey the imperial power again strengthened. A dramatic change took place in Rome. Until recently, under the heel of the emperor, the Roman popes made claims to the supreme power in the world. Inspired by the Clunian church reform, they no longer intended to play secondary roles in the empire. Pope Gregory VII became the main spokesman for these ideas.
The energetic Henry IV was not idle. He strove to strengthen his domain (personal lands) in Saxony in order to accumulate strength to fight the willful princes. But in vain. An active royal policy in Saxony provoked a revolt of the top of the Saxon feudal nobility and mass demonstrations of the peasants. Having mercilessly dealt with the peasants, Henry IV made peace with the nobility. But there was still a dramatic battle with Pope Gregory VII ahead. The usual relationship between the imperial (secular) and papal (spiritual) powers within the Holy Roman Empire collapsed. The struggle was for investiture (the right to appoint bishops). Both the Pope and the Emperor did not want to part with this right, because it gave power over the bishops (it was on this that the famous Ottonian episcopal system was built).
In 1076, at a meeting of the highest German clergy in Worms, Henry IV announced the overthrow of Gregory VII. In response, the Pope excommunicated the emperor from the church and deprived him of his royal dignity, and freed the subjects of the king from the oath to their sovereign. This served as a signal for the rebellious German princes, who immediately rebelled against Henry IV.
Finding himself in an extremely difficult situation, the emperor was forced to temporarily submit. Having made a difficult crossing over the Alps and having achieved a meeting with the Pope at the castle of Canossa, he begged forgiveness from Gregory VII on his knees. Despite this, the German princes at their meeting elected a new king - one of the leaders of the princely opposition, Rudolf of Swabia. So for the first time in the history of the Holy Roman Empire, the legitimate monarch was overthrown and replaced by an elected one, pleasing to the nobility. Nevertheless, thanks to the support of the German bishops, Henry IV was able to regain power. Arriving with an army in Rome, he expelled the hated Pope from there and achieved the proclamation of his protege Clement III as the new Pope. From his hands Henry IV received the traditional crown of the Holy Roman Emperor. However, an associate of Gregory VII, Urban P., soon re-established itself on the papal throne. In Germany, calm was established for a while. After the death of Henry IV in 1106, the throne passed to his son Henry V, who faced the same difficulties in his politics as his father. The long-standing struggle between the emperors and the Popes ended in 1122 with the signing of the Worms Concordat (treaty) between Henry V and Pope Calixtus II. In accordance with this treaty in Germany, the emperor performed a secular investiture - the transfer of the scepter, which symbolized the power over the lands of the bishopric. The secular investiture was followed by the spiritual one carried out by the Pope or his legate (representative). In Italy and Burgundy, the emperor practically lost his investiture. All this was a serious blow to the imperial power both in Germany and throughout the Holy Roman Empire.
In the XII century, when the development of national states in England and France was in full swing, feudal fragmentation was established in Germany and the central power weakened. The Roman papacy was strengthened again. Yet the idea of \u200b\u200ba "Roman World Power" retained its appeal and to some extent could be put into practice. She only needed a new incarnation.
Monarchs from the new Hohenstaufen (Staufen) dynasty became brilliant representatives of the idea of \u200b\u200bimperial power. It is with them that the last significant rise in the centuries-old history of the Holy Roman Empire is associated.
However, assessing the results of the reign of the first Hohenstaufen - Konrad III (1138-1152), it was difficult to predict such a turn of events in the future. Conrad III was the first German king since the founding of the empire, who did not make a single campaign of conquest in Italy and did not receive the imperial crown. He participated in the ingloriously ended 2nd crusade and grovelled before the church, for which he received the nickname "priest's king." His main merit was that he bequeathed the throne not to his 7-year-old son Frederick, but to the 32-year-old Duke Frederick - the future emperor Frederick I Barbarossa ("Redbeard") (1152-1190), whose name is associated with the most important events in history of Germany and the fate of the Holy Roman Empire.
Frederick I resumed the Italian campaigns of the German emperors. In 1154, during the first such campaign, he managed to get along with the Pope and was crowned imperial crown in Rome. By this time, the imperial power had a new enemy - the Italian cities that gained strength, which often united with the Pope against the emperor. During a new campaign in Italy in 1158, Frederick I managed to completely subjugate the northern Italian cities to the empire. He deprived them of the rights of self-government, appointed his governors - podesta, arrogated to himself the right of the highest judicial power in the cities and imposed taxes on them. The Milanese, who decided not to obey the emperor's arbitrariness, were severely punished: the city was taken by German troops and destroyed, and the market square was plowed and sprinkled with salt as a sign that there will always be a wasteland in the place of the city. However, fortune soon betrayed the emperor. Combining their forces, the cities defeated his army at the Battle of Legnano in 1176. Bored by the Lombard League (union of cities) and the Pope, Barbarossa made peace with them in Constanta (1183), meaning the restoration of self-government of the Italian cities.
No less active was the internal German policy of Frederick I. The emperor strengthened his domain, tried to rely on the cities, reminded the recalcitrant vassals of the glorious orders of the past, skillfully maneuvered between the major princes, making concessions to one or the other. At this stage, such a policy provided the emperor with lasting influence in Germany and allowed him to deal with the affairs of the Holy Roman Empire.
It was under Frederick I that the name "Sacred" was finally consolidated in the name of the medieval Roman Empire. Imperial propaganda actively asserted the sacred character of the empire. Frederick I himself opposed the papal claims to world domination with theoretical arguments. And the temporary weakening of papal power coinciding with the period of Barbarossa's rule (often several popes were elected to the throne at the same time) made such arguments quite convincing. Frederick I asserted the supremacy of the sacred authority of the emperor over the papacy. During this period, the Holy Roman Empire included Northern Italy, Germany, the Kingdom of Burgundy, Western Switzerland, Lorraine, Alsace, part of Flanders; depended on the empire of Bohemia, the Slavic lands in Mecklenburg and Pomerania.
Frederick I died during the 3rd crusade in 1189, drowning in a small mountain river in Asia Minor. But the "safety factor" of the empire, fortified by Barbarossa, was enough for a while. The new German king and emperor of the Holy Roman Empire continued the policy of Frederick I. And although his relations with the German princes became very complicated, Henry VI (1190-1197) managed to maintain his power. His main achievement was the accession to the Holy Roman Empire of Southern Italy and Sicily and the addition of the crown of the Sicilian kingdom to his collection.
The son of Henry VI, Frederick II (1220-1250), the last significant monarch of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was a prominent military and political figure in the Middle Ages. By making Sicily the center of his empire and treating Germany as a province, he fought vigorously to establish himself in Northern Italy and Rome. Fiercely, in spite of all the circumstances that hinder the implementation of his plans (the position of the Pope and the Lombard cities, the separatism of the German princes), Frederick II fought for the already unattainable ideal of the empire.
Together with the Hohenstaufens, the Holy Roman Empire descended into the grave as a serious political entity. It no longer fit into the new political realities. But the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "World Roman Power" continued to live, periodically entering the arsenal of vain rulers. The formal existence of the empire continued. She no longer had firm boundaries, which changed regularly as a result of wars, dynastic marriages, changes in vassal relations. In Germany itself, which finally disintegrated into territorial principalities, the imperial title became a plaything in the hands of the princes, who elected to the throne a candidate they liked. The election procedure was determined by the "Golden Bull" of Charles IV (1356). Little remained of the once magnificent title: the princes plundered all the lands and divided the attributes of imperial power among themselves.
Many emperors who talked about their supremacy over Christendom dragged out a miserable existence. Sigismund (1410-1437) and Frederick III (1440-1493) fed in the imperial cities and monasteries. After Frederick III, no emperor was crowned in Ri-me. Having lost all the annexed areas, the empire turned into a German one, slightly changing the name - "The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". Since the 15th century. the imperial crown was entrenched in the house of the Spanish Habsburgs, who sought to use its former greatness in the interests of their own state. They made attempts to reform and strengthen the empire by introducing an imperial tax and administrative division, which, however, gave nothing. After the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the imperial organs finally lost their importance.
Having successfully crossed the border between the Middle Ages and the New Age, the agonizing empire lasted until the 19th century. Its pale outlines became barely visible on the new political map of Europe. In 1806, amid the noise of Napoleonic victories, the last Emperor Franz II renounced the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. There were no people willing to pick up the fallen crown. So sadly ended the centuries-old history of the empire, which even in its best years was only a pitiful shadow of the greatness of Ancient Rome.
The Holy Roman Empire is a state that existed from 962 to 1806. His story is very curious. The founding of the Holy Roman Empire took place in 962. It was carried out by King Otto I. He was the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The state existed until 1806 and was a feudal-theocratic country with a complex hierarchy. The image below shows the state square around the beginning of the 17th century.
According to the idea of \u200b\u200bits founder, the German king, the empire created by Charlemagne was to be revived. However, by the 7th century, the idea of \u200b\u200bChristian unity was largely forgotten, which was present in the Roman state from the very beginning of its Christianization, that is, from the reign of Constantine the Great, who died in 337. Nevertheless, the church, which was heavily influenced by Roman institutions and laws, did not forget about this idea.
St. Augustine's idea
St. Augustine at one time undertook a critical development in his treatise entitled "The City of God" pagan ideas about an eternal and universal monarchy. This teaching was interpreted by medieval thinkers in a political aspect, more positively than its author himself. They were encouraged to do this by commentaries on the Book of Daniel of the Church Fathers. According to them, the Roman Empire will be the last of the great powers, which will perish only with the coming of the Antichrist to the earth. Thus, the formation of the Holy Roman Empire began to symbolize the unity of Christians.
History of the title
The very term denoting this state appeared rather late. Immediately after Charles was crowned, he took advantage of the awkward and long title, which was soon discarded. It contained the words "emperor, ruler of the Roman Empire."
All of his successors called themselves Emperor Augustus (no territorial specification). Over time, it was assumed that the former Roman Empire would enter the state, and then the whole world. Therefore, Otto II is sometimes referred to as Emperor Augustus of the Romans. And then, since the time of Otto III, this title is already indispensable.
History of the name of the state
The very phrase "Roman Empire" began to be used as the name of the state from the middle of the 10th century, it was finally fixed in 1034. It should not be forgotten that the Byzantine emperors also considered themselves the successors of the Roman Empire, so the assignment of this name by the German kings led to some diplomatic complications.
There is a definition of "Sacred" in the documents of Frederick I Barbarossa from 1157. In sources since 1254, the full designation ("Holy Roman Empire") has been rooted. We find the same name in German in the documents of Charles IV, the words "German nation" are added to it since 1442, first in order to distinguish the German lands from the Roman Empire.
In the decree of Frederick III, issued in 1486, this reference to "universal peace" is found, and since 1512 the final form is approved - "The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". It existed until 1806, until its very collapse. The adoption of this form occurred when Maximilian, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (reigned from 1508 to 1519), ruled.
Carolingian emperors
From the Carolingian, earlier period, the medieval theory of the so-called Divine State originated. In the second half of the 8th century, the Frankish kingdom, created by Pepin and his son Charlemagne, included most of the territory of Western Europe. This made this state suitable for the role of the spokesman for the interests of the Holy See. In this role, the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman) was replaced by him.
Having crowned Charlemagne in 800, December 25, with the imperial crown, Pope Leo III decided to sever ties with Constantinople. He created the Western Empire. The political interpretation of the power of the Church as a continuation of the (ancient) Empire thus received its form of expression. It was based on the idea that one political ruler should rise above the world, who acts in harmony with the Church, which is also common to all. Moreover, both sides possessed their own spheres of influence, which God established.
This holistic view of the so-called Divine state was realized in his reign almost in full by Charlemagne. Although it disintegrated under his grandchildren, the tradition of the forefather continued to persist in the minds, which led to the establishment in 962 by Otto I of a special education. It later received the name "Holy Roman Empire". It is about this state that we are talking about in this article.
German emperors
Otto, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, held power over the most powerful state in Europe.
He was able to revive the empire by doing what Charlemagne did in his time. But the possessions of this emperor were, however, significantly less than that of Charles. They included mainly Germanic lands, as well as the territory of central and northern Italy. Limited sovereignty extended to some border uncivilized areas.
Nevertheless, the imperial title did not give the kings of Germany great powers, although they theoretically stood above the royal houses in Europe. Emperors ruled in Germany, using administrative mechanisms that already existed. Very little was their interference in the affairs of the vassals in Italy. Here the main support of the feudal vassals were the bishops of various Lombard cities.
Emperor Henry III, beginning in 1046, received the right to appoint popes at his choice, just as he did with the bishops belonging to the German church. He used his power in order to introduce the ideas of church government in Rome in accordance with the principles of the so-called canon law (Cluny reform). These principles were developed on the territory located on the border between Germany and France. After Henry's death, the papacy turned against the imperial power the idea of \u200b\u200bthe freedom of the Divine State. Gregory VII, Pope, argued that spiritual authority is superior to secular authority. He launched an offensive against imperial law, began to appoint bishops independently. This fight went down in history as the "fight for investiture". It lasted from 1075 to 1122.
The Hohenstaufen dynasty
The compromise reached in 1122 did not lead, however, to final clarity on the vital issue of supremacy, and under Frederick I Barbarossa, who was the first emperor to belong to the Hohenstaufen dynasty (who took the throne 30 years later), the struggle between the empire and the papal throne flared up again. For the first time the definition of "Sacred" was added to the phrase "Roman Empire" under Frederick. That is, the state began to be called the Holy Roman Empire. This concept was further substantiated when Roman law began to revive, as well as to establish contacts with the influential Byzantine state. This period was the time of the greatest power and prestige of the empire.
Extension of the Hohenstaufen power
Frederick, as well as his successors on the throne (other emperors of the Holy Roman Empire), centralized the system of government in the territories that belonged to the state. They conquered, in addition, Italian cities, and also established suzerainty over countries outside the empire.
The Hohenstaufens spread their influence in this direction as Germany advanced to the east. To them in 1194 the Kingdom of Sicily ceded. This happened through Constance, who was the daughter of the Sicilian king Roger II and the wife of Henry VI. This led to the fact that the papal possessions were completely surrounded by lands that are the property of the state of the Holy Roman Empire.
Empire falls into decay
The civil war weakened her power. It flared up between the Hohenstaufens and the Welfs after Heinrich died prematurely in 1197. The Holy See under Innocent III dominated until 1216. This pope even insisted on the right to resolve disputes arising between applicants for the throne of the emperor.
After the death of Innocent, Frederick II returned the former greatness to the imperial crown, but was forced to give the right to the German princes to carry out whatever they wanted in their domains. He, thus abandoning the supremacy in Germany, decided to concentrate all his forces on Italy, to strengthen his position here in the incessant struggle with the papal throne, as well as with the cities under the rule of the Guelphs.
Power of emperors after 1250
In 1250, soon after Frederick died, with the help of the French, the papacy finally defeated the Hohenstaufen dynasty. One can see the decline of the empire at least in the fact that the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were not crowned for quite a long time - in the period from 1250 to 1312. However, the state itself still existed in one form or another for a long period - more than five centuries. This was because it was closely associated with the royal throne of Germany, and also because of the vitality of the tradition. The crown, despite the numerous attempts made by the French kings to gain the dignity of the emperor, remained invariably in the hands of the Germans. Attempts by Boniface VIII to reduce the status of the emperor's power caused the opposite result - a movement in defense of it.
Empire decline
But the glory of the state is already in the past. Despite the efforts made by Petrarch and Dante, representatives of the mature Renaissance turned away from ideals that have outlived themselves. And the glory of the empire was their embodiment. Now only Germany was limited to its sovereignty. Burgundy and Italy fell away from her. The state received a new name. It became known as the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation."
By the end of the 15th century, the last ties with the Pope's throne were broken. By this time, the kings of the Holy Roman Empire began to take the title without going to Rome to receive the crown. The power of the princes in Germany itself increased. The principles of election to the throne since 1263 were sufficiently defined, and in 1356 were enshrined by Charles IV. The seven electors (they were called electors) used their influence to make various demands on the emperors.
This greatly weakened their power. Below is the flag of the Roman Empire that has existed since the 14th century.
Habsburg emperors
The crown has been in the hands of the Habsburgs (Austrian) since 1438. Following the tendency in Germany, they sacrificed the interests of the nation for the greatness of their dynasty. Charles I, King of Spain, was elected in 1519 under the name of Charles V by the Roman Emperor. He united the Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Sardinia and the Kingdom of Sicily under his rule. Charles, Holy Roman Emperor, abdicated the throne in 1556. The Spanish crown then went to Philip II, his son. Ferdinand I, his brother, was appointed to succeed Charles as Holy Roman Emperor.
Empire collapse
The princes throughout the 15th century tried unsuccessfully to strengthen the role of the Reichstag (which represented the electors, as well as the less influential princes and cities of the empire) at the expense of the emperor. The reformation that took place in the 16th century shattered the existing hopes that the old empire could be rebuilt. As a result, various secularized states were born, and discord over religion began.
The emperor's power was now decorative. The meetings of the Reichstag turned into congresses of diplomats, busy with trifles. The empire degenerated into a fragile alliance between many small independent states and principalities. In 1806, on August 6, Franz II renounced the crown. This is how the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation collapsed.
A complex political alliance that existed from 962 to 1806 and potentially represented the largest state, founded by Emperor Otto I. At its peak (1050), under Henry III, it included German, Czech, Italian and Burgundian territories. She grew out of the East Frankish kingdom, proclaiming herself the heiress of Great Rome, in accordance with the medieval idea of \u200b\u200b"translatio imperii" ("transition of an empire"). The sacred represented a conscious attempt to revive the state.
True, by 1600, only a shadow of her former glory remained from her. Its heart was Germany, which by this period represented many principalities, successfully establishing themselves in their independent position under the rule of the emperor, which never had the status of absolute. Therefore, from the end of the fifteenth century, it is better known as the Holy Roman Nation.
The most important territories belonged to the seven electors of the emperor (King of Bavaria, Margrave of Brandenburg, Duke of Saxony, Palatine of the Rhine and three archbishops - Mainz, Trier and Cologne), who are referred to as the first estate. The second consisted of the unelected princes, the third one of the leaders of 80 free imperial cities. Representatives of the estates (princes, princes, lords, kings) were theoretically subject to the emperor, but each had sovereignty in their lands and acted as they saw fit, based on their own considerations. The Holy Roman Empire was never able to achieve the kind of political unification that existed in France, evolving instead into a decentralized, limited electoral monarchy made up of hundreds of sub-blocs, principalities, districts, free imperial cities and other regions.
The emperor also independently owned lands in Inner, Upper, Lower and Forward Austria, controlled Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia. The most significant area was the Czech Republic (Bohemia). When Rudolph II became emperor, he designated Prague as its capital. According to the testimonies of contemporaries, he was a very interesting, intelligent, reasonable person. Unfortunately, however, Rudolph suffered from bouts of insanity that developed from his tendency to depression. This has had a strong impact on the government structure. More and more privileges of power were in the hands of Matthias, his brother, despite the fact that he had no authority over it. The German princes tried to take advantage of this problem, but as a result (by 1600) they not only did not join their efforts, but on the contrary, a split occurred between them.
So, let's summarize what has been said. The main milestones of the political union of the territories: the formation of the Holy Roman Empire took place in 962. Otto, its founder, was crowned by the Pope in Rome. Since the beginning, the power of the emperors was only nominal.
Although some of them tried to change their position, to strengthen their positions of power, their attempts were prevented by the papacy and princes. The last was Franz II, who, under pressure from Napoleon I, renounced the title, thereby ending its existence.
