Most people have already forgotten what happened at school, and today they hardly remember what cases are called and what they are for. However, sometimes the question arises as to which case is called, and why it was given such a name. Such a thought can settle very deeply, become obsessive, and not disappear until you remember why any of the cases got its name. And today we will look into this issue.

What are cases

To begin with, if you have forgotten, we will recall what cases are in general, for what purpose they are present in our speech and grammar.

Cases are a category of parts of speech that allows you to give words some semantic or syntactic role. It is due to cases that we understand what this or that phrase can mean in a specific context, inflecting parts of speech, according to existing cases.

There are six cases that, despite the years that have passed since graduation, perhaps most people still remember to this day. This:

• Nominative;
• Genitive;
• Dative;
• Accusative;
• Instrumental;
• Prepositional.

Why are cases called so?

Below we propose to briefly pay attention to all existing cases and give an answer to the question of why they got their names.

In order to remember which case certain words belong to, it is important to remember the basic questions they answer. For example, in order to answer the question why the prepositional case is so called, it is necessary to understand that the words inclined to this case answer the questions “About whom?”, “About what?” etc. That is, for example, “about parents”, “about computers”, etc. This case got its name due to the fact that the words inclined into it can be substituted for the phrase "Offer". That is, for example: “The proposal about parents”, because the proposals can be about someone or about something.

Similarly, names were assigned to other cases in the Russian language. And the sequence can be tracked very easily. For example, words inclined into the accusative case, derived from the word "blame", answer the questions "Whom?" and “What?”, because you can blame either someone or something.

In a similar way, questions are formed when declension into other cases that we have not considered above:

• Nominative: "Who?" So what?";
• Genitive: "Who?" "What?";
• Dative: "To whom?" and "What?"
• Creative: "By whom?" and "What?"

The instrumental case is used both in the nominal (with a noun) and in the verbal (with a verb) position. Interestingly, nouns in the instrumental case can have different meanings which are detailed here. The article provides ways to determine the instrumental case with examples, a list of the most common prepositions is given.

What is instrumental case?

Instrumental case in Russian- indirect case, expressing subjective, objective, attributive and adverbial meanings. Instrumental case answers the questions – By whom? How?, can be used in verbal or adjectival positions.

Examples of nouns in the instrumental case: proud daughter, enjoy art, ignite match, written student, stand sideways, go columns, be cashier.

How to define instrumental case?

To find out the case of a noun, by the way, you need to ask questions of the instrumental case (Who? What?), and also highlight the case ending of the noun.

Case endings of T. p. are presented in the table.

declination	Unit number		Mn. number
1 declination	-oh (-s),	smile Ouch, smile oyu, statute to her, statue her, sweet tooth Ouch, sweet tooth oyu, uncle to her, uncle her	-ami(s),	smile ami, statute yami, sweet tooth ami, uncle yami
2 declension	-ohm (eat)	Gingerbread ohm, Royal eat, rings ohm, Vaults eat		Gingerbread ami, Royal yami, rings ami, Vaults ami
3 declension	-Yu	Horse Yu, sadness Yu		horses yami, horse mi, Sorrows yami
Differing	-ey, -ey, -em	child to her, baby her, Put eat, Banners eat		child mi, Put yami, Banners ami

note. In the instrumental plural form, nouns of all declensions have the same endings. The exception is the heterogeneous noun "child" and some additional forms of T. p. nouns of the third declension.

The meaning of nouns in the instrumental case

In phrases and sentences, nouns in the instrumental case can have different meanings:

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• subjective (the nail was hammered with a hammer, a mistake was made by an employee);
• object (admire music, have skills);
• definitive (vacuuming, she was clumsy);
• circumstantial (draw with a pencil, indicate with a ruler, work in the evenings, create a team, sing with a viola).

Instrumental prepositions

Nouns in the instrumental case are used both as a direct object (decorate with a pattern, speak in a bass voice), as well as with suggestions (stand in front of the house, fly over the sea). With nouns in T. p., prepositions are used - behind, in front of, under (podo), with (with), over, between, between.

Examples of nouns in instrumental case with prepositions: walk under rain, saucer under the cup, it is seen behind the cloud, carry behind the back, dispute between students, footpath over a joke, protrude in front of an audience, country house near Moscow, Brother with sister, speak with a friend.

Russian grammar is one of the most important parts of the language. Grammar allows us to speak confidently correct and without errors. Often the speech of people who do not know grammar sounds very funny, because all the words at the same time sound ridiculous and incoherent. For example, after all, everyone has heard how some foreigner is trying to communicate in Russian. Frankly, they don't work and they look ridiculous. In order not to look like they need to know grammar.

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The noun is one of the most important independent parts of speech, which is practically the most common part of speech. It has such inconsistent features as number, case. The case paradigm is change noun depending on the meaning it has in the sentence. In this article, you will learn how to determine cases for nouns what are indirect cases, how to ask them questions correctly, as well as about the cases themselves and their questions.

Cases

The only rule for the correct change of nouns is the correct setting of the ending in connection with the question asked. For native speakers, this is an easy task, but foreigners need to memorize the endings and correctly determine them.

Declension

Also exists 3 types of declension at nouns.

• First decline. The name of the creatures. masculine and feminine with the ending -a, -я. For example, a flask, a pig.
• Second decline. The name of the creatures. masculine and neuter with the ending -o, -e. For example, a tree, a well.
• Third declension. The name of a feminine being with a null ending, or in -ь. For example, horse, horse.

Noun change different declensions.

	Question	1 declension (plural)	2 declension (plural)	3rd declension (plural)
Nominative pad.	who what?	tire (tires), moms (moms)	spaceship (spaceships)	horse (horses)
Parental fall.	who?, what?	tires (tires), moms (moms)	spaceship(s)	horses (horses)
Dative pad.	to whom; to what?	tire (tires), mom (moms)	spaceship (spaceships)	horses (horses)
Accusatory pad.	who?, what?	tire (tires), mom (moms)	spaceship (spaceships)	horse (horses)
Creative pad.	who?, what?	tire (tires), mother (mothers)	by spaceship(s)	horse(s)
Prepositional fall.	About who about what?	about a tire (about tires), about mom (about moms)	about a spaceship (about spaceships)	about a horse (about horses)

In Russian there is such a thing as indirect cases- these are all cases, except for the nominative.

All of them have their meaning:

Determinants

There are many ways to determine the case of a noun. The fastest, easiest and most efficient way to date is to use qualifiers. Different cases can be determined using the following determiners.

The use of determiners makes it easier to change nouns by case. To do this, it is enough to put this word before the noun, and then ask a question and put the correct ending. For each case, it is enough to memorize one word.

In addition, the question is of great importance for determining the case. The table gives an idea of ​​what prepositions are used with case forms of nouns in Russian.

Cases are the foundation of the grammar of the Russian language and everyone is required to know each of them by heart. But remembering all of them is very easy, two days of cramming is enough to remember them for a lifetime. Good luck!

For coherent speech in Russian, the same words can be used in different forms, it can be singular or feminine, masculine or neuter, as well as declensions with changing endings. And it is cases that play a particularly important role in the construction of true statements, which show the syntactic role and connection of words in a sentence. Pronouns and numerals are subject to declension. And in the study of the Russian language, it is very important to learn to determine the case form of these parts of speech and to know what questions the cases answer.

The main cases of the Russian language

The case system of the Russian language is quite simple to learn, but it has several features. Therefore, a huge amount of time is devoted to this topic in the school curriculum. First of all, children are introduced to what questions the cases answer and what they are called. As a rule, only six main cases are presented to the attention of schoolchildren, although in fact there are many more of them, however, due to the close similarity, varieties of obsolete case forms were combined with the main ones. Although there are still disputes among linguists about this.

Nominative

The nominative case in abbreviated form is written by Him. n. Questions of the nominative case - Who? So what? For all parts of speech, this is the initial one and can act as the name of an object, person or natural phenomenon, and in a sentence it always acts as a subject. For example:

The girl left the room; The sun was setting below the horizon.

Also in the nominative case there can be a nominal part of the compound predicate. For example:

Nikita is my son; Alexander Vasilievich - director.

Also always in the nominative case is the main member and the appeal. For example:

Noise, noise, reeds; Here is the old house.

Genitive

The use of the genitive case can be both after verbs and after names. Words with this declension answer questions whom? what? In abbreviated form, it is written R.p.

This form of words has a variety of meanings and syntactic uses. The verbal genitive case can indicate the subject:

• in the case when the verb has a negation: not to demolish the head, not to tell the truth;
• if the action does not refer to the whole object, but only to its part: drink water, eat soup, chop wood.

The adjective genitive can indicate whole line relations:

• belonging to someone or something: mother's house, doll dress;
• relation of a whole to a part: hotel room, tree branch;
• evaluation or definition of qualities: green cap, tears of happiness, man of the word.

That is why, in order to correctly determine the case form, it is very important to know what questions the cases answer.

Nouns used in the genitive case together with adjectives of comparison indicate the object or person with which they are compared. For example:

More beautiful than Natasha, whiter than snow, faster than lightning.

Dative

To understand how to use a word in a particular case, you need to clearly know what questions the cases answer, in which case a certain form of declension is used. For example, the dative case (to whom; to what?) words are most often placed after verbs and only in a few cases after words denoting objects.

Mostly the words in this case are used to designate the main subject to which the action is directed.

For example:

Say hello to a friend, threaten an enemy, an order to subordinates.

In impersonal sentences, words in the dative case can be used as a predicate. For example:

Sasha was scared. The boy was cold. The patient is getting worse.

Accusative

Questions of the accusative case are similar to questions of other cases, namely, the genitive and nominative. So, for an animated object, this is a question whom? and to the inanimate - What? And quite often, schoolchildren confuse this case with the nominative, therefore, for a correct definition, first of all, it is necessary to highlight the grammatical basis in the sentence. Words in this case form are most often used with verbs and denote the object to which the action completely passes.

For example:

Fishing, cleaning shoes, sewing a skirt, baking a cake.

Also, words standing in can express quantity, time, space and distance. For example:

All summer, every minute, every year.

Instrumental case

Just like other case forms, instrumental questions have two forms for living and non-living things. These are special questions that cannot be confused with other forms. So, for an animated object, the instrumental case answers the question by whom? For example:

He knew (who?) Oksana and (who?) her mother.

For an inanimate object, the instrumental case answers the question how? For example:

He fed (what?) Bread, gave him water (what?) to drink.

As a rule, this form of words is used in combination with verbs closely related to names.

Such a case form of words with verbs always acts as a means and instrument of action, can be an image or mode of action, and also have the meanings of time, place, space, and who performs the action. For example:

(what?) with a stick.

The old man propped himself (with what?) on his palm.

The road led (with what?) through the forest.

The fairy tales "Aibolit", "Confusion" and "Cockroach" were written (by whom?) by Korney Chukovsky.

Also, this case form of words can also occur with names and have the following meanings. With nouns:

• instrument of action: beat with a hand, brush;
• actor: security of the house by watchmen, release of goods by the seller;
• the content of the action itself: study German;
• definitive value: sausage with a ring, bass singing.

With adjectives, words in the instrumental case are used with the meaning of the limitation of the indicated attribute. For example:

He was strong-minded and known for his discoveries.

Prepositional

The sixth and last case that is studied in the school curriculum is prepositional.

Questions of the prepositional case, as well as other case forms, are divided towards living objects (on whom? about whom?) and inanimate (on what? about what?). Words in this case are always used with prepositions, hence the name of the case itself. Depending on the preposition used, the meaning also changes, questions of the prepositional case are always built using the same prepositions that are used in specific cases in the context.

Using prepositions with words in the prepositional case

For the correct definition of the case form of words and their correct use in speech, it is very important to know how cases are associated with questions and prepositions when using various forms of words in sentences.

Each of the prepositions used gives the word its own meaning:

What role do cases, questions and prepositions play?

The table of prepositions that are used in combination with various case forms of words plays a huge role in the study of the case system of the Russian language.

After all, it is they who, joining nouns, can reveal different meanings of the same word.

case	Pretext	Meaning	Example
Genitive	around, because of, before, at	determine the space in which the object is located or in which the action takes place	walk around the park left the house, stand by the tree
Dative	to, by	used to indicate approaching an object, object or place of event	approach a friend go off-road
Accusative	in, for, on	indicate which object the action is directed to	hug your waist, look out the window put on the table
Instrumental	under, behind, over, with	can have many meanings, including indicating the direction of a particular action and denoting a space	fly over the earth walk under the bridge be friends with grandma

Declension of nouns, adjectives and numerals by cases

One of the main topics of this section of the Russian language is the topic: "Declination by cases". As a result of such a change, the word is transformed, acquiring a new ending, which is quite important for the correct construction of speech. Declension occurs by changing the word so that it answers the questions of each case. The declension of nouns has an independent character, while adjectives and numerals in the context always depend on the case in which the word associated with them stands.

In the case of declension of numerals, the question can also be modified, as for an adjective, which makes it easier to decline the word.

Declension of numerals by cases

case	case question	Question for the numeral	numeral
Nominative	Who? What?	How many? Which?
Genitive	whom? what?	how many? what?	eighth eighth
Dative	to whom? what?	how many? what?	eighth eighth eighth
Accusative	whom? What?	How many? what?	eighth eighth
Instrumental	by whom? how?	how many? what?
Prepositional	about whom? about what?	about how many? about what?	about the eighth about the eighth about the eighth

The purpose of the school curriculum is to teach children not only to correctly determine the case form of words in a particular sentence, but also to be able to correctly use a preposition that will fully reveal the meaning of the statement. Such skills are very important for the construction of competent speech. That is why special attention is paid to this topic and a sufficient number of Russian language lessons so that children can not only study, but consolidate this material well.

G. I. Kustova, 2011

case- grammatical inflectional category of a noun expressing different types syntactic relations of a noun to another word, to other elements of a syntactic construction, or to a sentence as a whole.

The term "case" also denotes any of the grammes of the category of case (for example, "dative case": table at , table am , countries e , countries am etc.) and a separate case form of the name (for example: country- dative case of a noun a country).

The syntactic relations expressed by the case usually have a semantic, and sometimes also a communicative content. However, there are cases of semantically degenerate syntactic relations, when the case cannot be assigned any content and it expresses only the very fact of the syntactic connection of the case form with another element (elements) of the syntactic structure of the sentence.

The category of case for substantive and adjective words is arranged differently. The case of adjectival words - adjectives, pronouns-adjectives, ordinal numbers, participles, as well as the case of cardinal numbers, except for the nominative and accusative inanimate - is consistent and depends on the case of the noun being defined.

The main object of description in grammatical theory is the case of nouns (and other substantive words - noun pronouns, cardinal numbers in the nominative and accusative), which has a complex system of functions and meanings. Unlike other grammatical categories, which are binomial ( number (see), view (see)) or trinomial ( face(cm.), time(cm.), mood(see)), the case in Russian is a polynomial category and combines at least six opposed series of forms - nominative(cm.), genitive(cm.), dative(cm.), accusative(cm.), instrumental(cm.), prepositional(cm.). The question of the presence in the Russian language of a partitive (genitive quantitative) and a locative (local case), due to which the case paradigm would become eight-term, is debatable (see. 1.2 Composition of cases).

Nominative(see) occupies a special place in the case paradigm. First of all, it is used in the naming function. In addition, in traditional grammar, it is believed that the nominative case of the subject is not controlled by the verb-predicate, but is in a special syntactic relationship of coordination with it. This is the basis of the traditional division of cases into direct (nominative) and indirect (all others).

1 Morphology

1.1 Case means

The meaning of the case is expressed by inflection cumulatively with the meaning of the number. Noun declension(cm.)

Declension of pronouns(cm.)

Declension of numerals(cm.)

Adjective declension of nouns(cm.)

1.2 Composition of cases: expansion possibilities

The Russian case system includes six main cases:

• nominative(cm.);
• genitive(cm.);
• dative(cm.);
• accusative(cm.);
• instrumental(cm.);
• prepositional(cm.).

Along with the six main cases in Russian, there are a number of forms with a disputed status that are close to the case: the second genitive case, the second prepositional case, the second accusative case, two countable forms and the vocative form. Each of these forms is characteristic of a limited circle of words and occurs in special contextual conditions (for more details on the status of each of these forms, see [Zaliznyak 1967:43–52])

Second genitive(other names: partitive, quantitative-separative) have some masculine words of the 2nd declension in the singular: spoon sugar at ; cup of tea Yu ; People at ran up!; Noise at was!(cf. "first" genitive: weight sugar A , cha taste I , voice of the people A , can't hear the noise A ). The ending of the genitive partitive is common in colloquial speech, but is not required (permissible eat cheese A And eat cheese at ; bag of sugar A And bag of sugar at ), except in some cases ( not once at ; let's have a cup of tea at ; also in phraseological units: without a year at a week; our regiment at arrived; with the world at on a string; my hut with Yu ; rage with fat at and etc.). Many masculine nouns, not only borrowed, but also Russian ones, are not used in the partitive form: * glass sprite at , *kilo rosehip at , *ice cube at , *charcoal bag Yu , *piece of bread at .

Second prepositional case(other names - local, locative) is characterized by special endings for a group of masculine nouns in the singular and the transfer of stress to the ending of some feminine nouns of the 3rd declension in the singular: into the cupboard at , in the forest at , To the shore at , into the nose at , on the forehead at , in bo Yu ; in the oven, V hush, in blood, in the shadow, on the rocks, on ointment (cf. "first" prepositional case: about the closet, about the forest, about blood, about the shadow). The degree of obligatory use of the form of the local case in different cases is different. For some masculine nouns, the use of the ending -y in the prepositional case after prepositions V And on in a prepositional group with a spatial meaning is obligatory ( to the side at , in the mouth at , captured at , in ra Yu , on the forehead at , on the floor at , by the look at , cf. also phraseological units go for a reason at who; once in year at ), for some - variable ( in a haystack at – in a haystack e , to the barn at- in the barn e , to the ball at – to the ball e ; on vacation e- V vacation at ), for some it is impossible ( dock – to the dock e , Not * at the dock; yard – to the yard e , Not * to the yard at ; hall – to the hall e , Not * in the hall). For more information about the second prepositional case, see [Plungyan 2002], , .

Second accusative case(other names - inclusive, transformative, collective) occurs after the preposition V with a small number of verbs, and its endings coincide with the endings of the nominative plural (another interpretation is fluctuations in animation(cm.)): [ go, enroll, get out, prepare, ask, mark, accept, choose etc. V] soldiers, pilots, generals, commanders. This form has the least right to special case status.

There are also isolated phenomena such as the so-called expectant case(case series with the verb wait and some others). They are on the periphery of the case system.

At the words row, track, hour, step, ball, as well as for substantiated adjectives like duty, dining room there is a special counting form, implemented in combination with the nominative and accusative case of numerals two (two), three, four, both (both), one and a half (one and a half): two o'clock á (with emphasis on the ending, cf. genitive case: about an hour A - with an accent on the basis), three tables s/ tables s (cf. genitive case: three rooms, three tables). Another counting form stands out for some names of units of measurement: ten volts, ampere(Not volts, amps).

vocative form (see Vocative) (vocative) is used in colloquial speech in the function of addressing some names of persons to unstressed -and I: mom, aunt, Mash, Wan(this is a new form, which should be distinguished from the old vocative form God, God, Father, older preserved in only a few words).

The listed forms, primarily the partitive and locative, are sometimes interpreted as separate cases, but the six-case interpretation of the case system is predominant, in which the partitive and other additional cases are considered variants of the main cases.

"Six case" The approach assumes that some words, within one of the six main cases, have, along with the main one, an additional form with special semantics. In favor of the six-case approach is evidenced by the fact that these special forms (“additional cases”) are not equivalent to the main cases, primarily in terms of vocabulary coverage and semantics. If all words have main cases, then additional ones are tied to certain semantic classes of lexemes: the partitive occurs mainly in real nouns (although not all of them, cf. * piece of bread at ) and some abstract ones ( a lot of noise at ; suffered fear at ); the locative occurs mainly in words with the meaning of place (space) and some abstract nouns, but never occurs, for example, in animate nouns. In addition, additional cases do not occur at all in plural. As for the semantics of the cases themselves, the main cases have a wide semantics - each case expresses a whole set of semantic roles (see p. 2.2.1.2 ): cf. genitive: No thunderstorms (subject of existence) - fears thunderstorms (situation-stimulus) - I want to rest (desire content); prepositional: hide in a ravine (place), dream about the trip (content), cf. also attributive and adverbial uses - come in May (time), man in costume (characteristic), and additional cases have a specific and narrow semantics: the partitive is quantitative, the locative is spatial (that is, they are unambiguous).

"Octal" approach (including the partitive and locative in the composition of the main cases) suggests that in the “paired” cases (first and second genitive, first and second prepositional) only some words have endings that differ ( a glass of tea Yu – cha taste I ), and most words have the same endings: partitive ( glass of water s ) and the "regular" genitive ( the taste of the waters s ) will always have the same form not only for all feminine and neuter words, but also for most masculine words: bag coal I – charcoal color I ; as well as for all words in the plural.

NOTE. The eight-case approach creates difficulties not only in teaching, but also in theory. For example, how to prove that in combination with feminine and neuter nouns - like a glass of water / milk - the idea of ​​a part / amount of a substance is expressed not only by “measuring” vocabulary like a glass, but also by a special case if this case coincides with the “usual” genitive (cf. taste of water/milk)?

2 Usage: syntax and semantics

2.1 General characteristics

The complexity of describing the category of case is due to the fact that there is no single basis on which the classification of cases could be built. Existing descriptions of case systems usually use several different features to characterize cases. For example, in [Grammar 1980(2) §§1727–1730] the relation of a case form to another word or to an entire syntactic construction is described in terms of a conditional and non-verbal connection ( congratulate Happy anniversary vs. father anniversary), strong and weak coupling ( elect deputy vs. house father ), non-variable and variant connection ( dream about rest vs. worry about children / worry for the children ) (for details, see p. 3 Case in grammatical descriptions(cm.)).

We distinguish three types of use of case forms in a sentence, depending on the mechanism for including a case form in a sentence: controlled, constructively conditioned (abbreviated - constructive) and freely attached (abbreviated - free).

A. Controlled (dictionary, lexically conditioned) cases(see clause 2.2.):

score nail ; admire painting ; management department ; satisfied result , few time . Such case spreaders are attached to a word on the basis of its lexical (semantic) valency and in this sense are its dictionary characteristic - i.e. characterization of the word as a vocabulary unit. Such case forms can be called controlled, as well as valence or vocabulary. In the academic grammar of 1980, they are considered conditional (see [Grammar 1980 (2): §§1720–1721] and also [Shvedova 1978]) and refer to management.

b. Structurally determined cases(see clause 2.3)

Structurally stipulated cases are not a dictionary characteristic of any word, but are used as part of a sentence - they appear in the process of constructing a sentence as a syntactic structure and its substructures (separate syntactic constructions). Structurally conditioned cases are used:

• with a certain form of the word (in this case they are due to the gramme): infinitive(see Infinitive sentences) suggests expressing the subject in the dative case ( to me be on duty); comparative(see Comparative form) involves the expression of the object of comparison in the genitive case ( higher tree );
• in a certain syntactic function (position): subject, predicate;
• as part of a syntactic construction: transitional(see Transitivity) ( workers are building house ), passive(see pledge) ( House under construction workers ); constructions also include types of sentences, for example, infinitive ( To you go out); impersonal(see Impersonality) ( To him can't sleep).

In the academic grammar of 1980, such case forms are qualified as non-verbal and are distinguished at the sentence level (see [Grammar 1980 (2): §§2006–2011]).

A special case of constructively conditioned attachment is 24 (see clause 2.4); "determinant" - the term N.Yu. Shvedova (see, for example, [Shvedova 1964], [Shvedova 1968]), adopted by many Russian authors. Determinants are attached to the whole sentence, entering into a relationship with its predicative center: boy he became interested in chess; In the evenings everyone gathered in the living room. For them, the initial (left) position in the sentence and the communicative function of the topic are typical.

C. Freely attachable cases(see clause 2.5)

These cases are neither valence nor constructive and are attached to the word as free propagators with an adverbial or attributive meaning: village Manilova ; hut In the woods ; build this year . Being neither structurally nor semantically necessary, they introduce additional information into the sentence. In the academic grammar of 1980, this type of use of case and prepositional forms is called case adjunction ([Grammar 1980 (2): §§ 1728, 1834–1849]).

Finally, case forms can be used outside the sentence(see clause 2.6): as a heading of the text or outside the text (more precisely, as independent texts) - in signboards, signs, etc.

The main types of use of cases are controlled and constructive. They are building elements, supporting structures of the sentence structure. Free (attributive-adverbial) cases are case analogues of adjectives and adverbs. "Heading" cases are generally outside the sentence and constitute the farthest periphery of the functioning of case forms.

Within each group there is a core (prototypical uses) and a periphery - a zone of rapprochement (or even intersection) with other groups.

Case forms can spread the words of all significant parts of speech - the verb ( cook soup), noun ( manufacturing toys), adjective ( loyal word), adverb ( out of spite enemies), comparative(see Comparative degree) - the form of the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs in - O (higher tree), numeral ( two table), predicative(cm.) ( heard music).

The case form may depend on the preposition (cf. Pretext). At the same time, it is usually believed that the preposition and the case form form a single whole both in syntactic and semantic terms (E. Kurilovich even suggested considering the grammatical indicator of the prepositional group (cf. To table- at ) as a kind of complex morpheme, consisting of a preposition and a case ending; however, an adjective can usually be inserted between the preposition and the case form, see [Kurilovich 1962]). In any case, in the semantic interpretation of the case in a prepositional construction, the meaning of the preposition, as well as the meaning of the noun itself, plays an important role, cf.: [move away] from the edge– starting point; [ tremble] because of fear- reason (the interpretation of a controlled prepositional group, as well as a controlled non-prepositional one, depends primarily on the semantics of the control word: refuse from the voucher ).

Prepositional case forms have the same semantic and syntactic properties as non-prepositional case forms. They can be:

• lexically conditioned, expressing the valency of the predicate word: pursuit to knowledge ; meet with friends ;
• constructively determined: Brother with sister (comitative construction); any from U.S (elective construction), every got a candy (distributive construction);
• attached to the whole sentence as a determinant: By the evening everyone gathered in the living room; From the noise headache;
• freely attached to the word: sauce to the fish ; keys from the basement ;
• isolated (independent text - heading, signboard, slogan): About the weather; To the stadium.

Below we will consider mainly non-prepositional cases. The exception is the prepositional case, which does not have an unprepositional use. In addition, individual prepositional constructions will be given as an illustration of the general provisions of the case theory (see, for example, clause 2.5, clause 2.6).

2.2 Controlled cases (valence addition of cases)

Control is a type of connection in which the control word predicts not only the presence of a subordinate name (s), but also its (their) case form; in traditional grammars, it is usually said that the control word “requires” a certain case with itself, in other terminology, it has a valence expressed by this case.

2.2.1 Verb control

2.2.1.1 Semantic structure of the control word: actants, valencies, cases

From a semantic point of view, all controlled cases are valence. The control word can be any part of speech, but the prototypical valence word is the verb, which, together with its case environment, forms the syntactic model of the sentence.

A verb (or other predicate word) denotes a situation with a certain number of participants and has a corresponding number of semantic actants. Actants correspond to valency. In the valency clause of the verb, they are “filled in” (“saturated”, expressed) with noun phrases in a certain case without a preposition or with a preposition (in a typical case; some valences can also be expressed by adverbs, adjectives, infinitives, subordinate clauses), see [Apresyan 1967] , [Apresyan 1974], [Chaefe 1975], [Fillmore 1981], , [Paducheva 2004], [Apresyan 2010], [Plungyan 2011].

At the level of the semantic structure (meaning), semantic valences are obligatory: they are part of the semantics of the predicate as a lexical unit. At the level of syntactic structure (in a sentence), valence may not be syntactically expressed, but the corresponding participant (actant) is implied by the speaker and semantically reconstructed by the addressee (without this it is impossible to understand the meaning of the sentence with this predicate): for example, in the verb come in the original meaning (‘movement’) there is the valency of the agent (subject-person), and if it is not expressed in a material form - for example, in an incomplete sentence Came[answer to question Brother came?] or in an indefinite personal sentence They came to you, - the personal subject is still “recovered” and is part of the meaning of the sentence. See articles for more details Semantic roles(mass media Syntactic roles(cm.).

Information about a case or a set of cases is called a case frame, or control model. The control model characterizes the word as a whole, as a vocabulary unit, and refers to any form included in its paradigm (cf. wipe dust rag; wipe dust rag; wiping dust rag; wiping dust rag).

The control model is an individual (vocabulary) characteristic of a predicate word, both from a semantic and formal point of view: the number and nature of actants are individual, because follow from the semantics of the word; case registration of actants is also individual for a predicate lexeme, because each such lexeme requires certain case forms: for example, some verbs govern the accusative case ( listen music ; be in love nature ), others - instrumental case ( be proud son ; lead department ), still others - in the genitive case ( afraid rain ; avoid meetings ) etc.

The expression of the first actant - the subject - is subject to special syntactic rules. These rules are outside the sphere of management in the narrow sense and belong to the sphere of constructive cases. The case formulation of the subject and object in the passive construction is also subject to special rules (see. p. 2.3 Structurally determined cases).

Although the set and content of semantic valences are individual for each predicate, nevertheless, predicates belonging to the same semantic class have a similar set of valences (roles) and similar ways of expressing them. Thus, verbs of physical action have the valencies of agent and patient, and sometimes also of instrument and means; verbs of perception have the valency of the experiencer (subject of perception) and stimulus (object of perception), verbs of information transfer have the valence of the addressee, verbs of speech and thought have the valency of the content, etc. (see examples below, p. 2.2.1.2 (cm.)).

The semantics of the predicate determines not only the number of valences, but also the very possibility of their semantic interpretation. For specific predicates denoting situations in the physical world, the content of valences is most obvious. With a shift towards abstract semantics, predicate valences are difficult or not amenable to semantic interpretation at all (cf. concrete come to the river and abstract come To conclusion ), and in this case no meaningful role is attributed to them, and valence is characterized in syntactic terms ("subject"; "object").

2.2.1.2 Semantic roles (valencies) expressed by case forms

Although there is no generally accepted list of types of predicate valences and semantic roles of participants in situations, there are valences (roles) that are distinguished by many researchers and are found in large groups of predicates (see Fig. Semantic roles):

• agent- the subject of action, spending his own energy to achieve the goal: Painter painted the wall; Athlete jumped off a trampoline;
• effector- an elemental force that produces an impact and change: Wind tore off roof; Flow swept the boat; This role is characterized by the so-called a spontaneous construction, when the effector is expressed in instrumental case with an impersonal verb: Roof ripped off by the wind ; The boat was blown away flow ;
• property carrier subject: metal has good conductivity; sewage water characterized by a high content of petroleum products;
• patient- an object that undergoes changes in the course of a situation under the influence of an agent or some uncontrolled (and sometimes unnamed) force: Boy broke pencil ; The wind blew roof ; The boy threw ball ; Ball fell.

NOTE. A participant that does not undergo changes (is not created, does not deform, does not collapse, etc.), but only moves ( throw the ball; move a chair), in typological and syntactic studies, primarily foreign (cf., for example,), is sometimes called a theme. In Russian linguistic literature, this term has not received wide distribution - firstly, because in Russian the patient and the topic have the same case design, and secondly, because this term is inconvenient due to the coincidence with the name of another role - "Message subject"(see below) - and with "theme" as an element of the actual division of the sentence;

• result(created object) is another role, which, like the patient, is expressed in the accusative case, but semantically differs from the patient (cf., in particular, [Paducheva 2004:43–44]): to knit mittens ; cook soup . A noun phrase with a result role is characterized by a beneficiary context ( Knit mittens for grandson), but not the possessor ( ? Knit mittens grandson), which is valid for the patient, (cf.: Break / throw away/dirty grandson's mittens). The situation of creation is characterized by one more participant - the material: knit mittens wool ; cook soup from vegetables ;
• tool– participant of the situation, which is used by the agent to achieve the goal: chop with an ax , paint brush , sew on a typewriter , sift through a sieve ; consider binoculars ; fire from a gun ;
• means- a participant in the situation, which, unlike the instrument, is consumed or connected by the agent in the process of use: paint the wall paint ; set the table tablecloth ;
• recipient– recipient in a transfer situation (the result of a transfer situation is possession, so the recipient can also be called a dynamic possessor): hand over / give / bequeath a collection grandchildren ;
• destination- the recipient of information (expressed not only verbally, but also by signs or signals): to report, make a promise, flatter, wave, wink friend ;
• beneficiary, or beneficiary, – participant whose interests are affected by the situation and who benefits from it: to help brother , promote progress ; accordingly, a malefactive is a participant who is negatively affected by the situation: interfere grandmother , take revenge enemy , harm health ;
• experimenter- the subject of sensation, perception, feeling, experience: Patient unwell; Sailor saw the earth; Boy scared of the dog;
• stimulus- the object or situation that the experiencer perceives or reacts to: The sailor saw earth ; The boy got scared noise ; the stimulus is included in a wider class of causators, it can be considered a kind of cause, which is especially obvious when the stimulus is a situation: rejoice victory ;
• possessor- the subject of possession: landowner owns the land; The earth belongs landowner ;
• message subject and content: speak about the trip , think about the trip ; sometimes the prepositional group " O+ suggestion" or " about+ vin.p. " expresses theme and content syncretically, however, there are cases where these roles differ: told about Petya [subject] all sorts of nonsense [content];
• counterparty- one of the participants in the "symmetrical" (mutual) action: be friends with a classmate ; hug with brother ; counterparties are also seen in situations of interaction that are not symmetrical (reciprocal) actions, for example, in [Apresyan 2010:373], the role of the verb buy: buy a cottage at the neighbor's ; indeed, in the interaction phase, the seller is the counterparty of the buyer, from another point of view, he is the possessor;
• second member of the relation: equal / match what ; surpass whom / What ; differ from whom / what (this role is typical for static predicates, among which there are many adjectives: equals what ; similar on whom ; married on whom );
• place(locative, essive): run V forest ;
• starting point(elative, ablative, source): go out from the city ;
• end point(lative, directive, goal): go in town ;
• trajectory(route, path): go through the forest / along the shore / through the wasteland ;
• time: start at five o'clock ;
• term: rent for a month (the term, generally speaking, is a kind of time, but in [Apresyan 2010:376] this role is distinguished as a special one);
• aspect: surpass by quality ; differ color ;
• target: pursuit to success ;
• motivation: reward for bravery .

NOTE. As a rule, such participants in the situation as place, time, purpose, reason, etc., are circumstantial, and the noun phrases expressing them are circumstances (cf .: talking in the corridor is a circumstance of a place; going on a business trip in June is a circumstance of time ; to invite an employee to talk is a circumstance of purpose), but some predicates, due to their lexical semantics, place, time, purpose, etc. are semantic actants. Cause occupies a special place both in the list of actants and in the list of circonstants. The meaning ‘reason’ is very important in natural language and is widely represented both in lexical meanings with a causative component and in causative grammatical constructions. The meaning of the reason is expressed not only in different types of circumstances (I entered by mistake / by mistake; I was late due to traffic jams; I left because of necessity; I canceled as unnecessary, etc.), there is a whole group of semantic roles that can be considered varieties of the reason ( causator): agent, effector, stimulus, motivation. Sometimes the lists of roles include the terms “cause” (cf. [Apresyan 1974]) and “causator” (cf. [Paducheva 2004]).

The semantic content of the case could be considered the semantic role that the corresponding participant in the situation performs, if the case always expressed some kind of role (preferably the same one). However, in Russian, the case is not a direct expression of the semantic role: firstly, the case form may not have a semantic content (cf. finish work); secondly, the same case form in different cases can have different content (to express different roles, cf. boy running[agent] and the boy is afraid[experiencer]). We can only talk about some correspondence between the role of the actant and his case: some cases “specialize” in expressing certain roles, and vice versa, certain cases are typical for some roles: the nominative case is typical for the agent, the accusative case for the patient, the addressee, recipient and the beneficiary is the dative case, for the instrument and the means it is the instrumental case.

The semantic role is not always expressed in the most typical case for it. Correspondence role ↔ case can be violated under the influence of various "perturbing" factors - semantic or syntactic. Sometimes the role of a participant is complicated by additional meanings: sew on sewing typewriter - a participant in the situation with the role of an instrument (a typewriter) receives a case design typical for the place, because a machine is, unlike conventional tools like a hammer, scissors, a shovel, etc., a fixed, non-manipulable tool; persuade sister [do something] - the addressee is expressed not in the dative, but in the accusative case, because is not just a recipient of information, but also an object whose state the speaker wants to change (cf. the situation of weaker impact advise sister ).

Another source of violation of the correspondence between the semantic role of the participant in the situation and its typical case expression is “secondary” syntactic constructions, which can be considered the result of a transformation of some original construction: for example, in a passive construction, the agent is expressed not in the nominative, but in the instrumental case, and the patient is expressed in the nominative: Wall painted painter ; in the infinitive construction, the agent is expressed in the dative case (with additional modal semantics): painter paint the wall today(cm. clause 2.3).

2.2.1.3 Syntactic and communicative properties of verbal cases

From a syntactical point of view, cases express the syntactic relationship between a predicate and its associated names (nominal groups). Syntactic relations are an analogue of the traditional concept of sentence members. Syntactic relations can be represented as a hierarchy (see [Kibrik 2003:121]):

subject (im.p.) > direct object (vin.p.) > indirect object (dat.p.) > indirect object (other indirect cases without prepositions or with prepositions)

Each next member of the hierarchy has a lower rank than the previous one, which means a more limited set of possibilities.

In Russian, as in many others, there are mechanisms for changing the syntactic rank, "promotion" of the nominal group from a lower position to a higher (more "prestigious") with a corresponding change in case design: The teacher checks work (win.p.) - Job (im.p.) checked by the teacher; smear bread oil painting (tv.p.) - smear oil (win.p.) for bread(See [Kholodovich 1974]; [Paducheva 2002].

The increase in the syntactic rank of a noun phrase can have a communicative aspect: getting into a higher position, the noun phrase thus falls into the focus of the addressee.

A change in the communicative rank of a noun phrase can be not only “upgrading”, but also “downgrading”. An example is the lowering of the rank of the subject (in the original construction - the subject) in negative existential sentences ( Lanterns [genus] did not burn), corresponding to existential two-part ( burned lanterns [im.p.]), or in passive constructions ( Approved superiors [tv.p.]), corresponding to active ( superiors [im.p.] approved).

The grammaticalized expression of the communicative top of the sentence is the nominative case of the subject - the noun phrase falling into this position becomes the subject of the message (cf. the school definition of the subject: “what the sentence is about”). However, the formation of the communicative structure of a sentence is influenced not only by the syntactic hierarchy, but also by the semantic hierarchy of animation (as well as other factors), see [Kibrik 2003]. If there are noun phrases in a sentence with a lower syntactic rank than the subject, but a higher rank in other hierarchies, they may compete with the nominative case, moving into the topic position.

So, for example, the position of the topic is typical for the experimenter in the dative case (due to which, in particular, such forms are sometimes considered a non-canonical subject, cf. [Testelets 2001]): Brother there was a noise; Gentlemen I like blondes. In general, the removal of a noun phrase into the position of the topic, especially with the meaning of a person, is a common communicative technique: sister summoned to the dean's office / calls the dean. Wed also the position of the determinant, which has an obvious communicative aspect: neighbor the summons came; Fool seven miles is not a detour; Editorial we were denied.

A special place among the determinants is occupied by the prepositional group y + genus.p. (Neighbors guests), which in colloquial speech can be used for "multiple thematization": I have a daughter chief birthday today.

“Removing” the case form to the left (initial) position in the sentence (i.e., to the position of the topic) as a mechanism for increasing the communicative status can be applied not only to designations of a person, but also to nominal groups denoting objects, for example: boxes two or three left; TV free time will not fill.

A similar function can be performed by the so-called nominative theme: TV- you won’t fill their free time.

Unlike the nominative case of the subject, which specializes in the function of expressing the top of the communicative hierarchy (although not always being such), other case forms do not have a communicative meaning in themselves, but are only used to express communicative relations.

2.2.2 Management of other parts of speech

The main provisions of the syntactic theory concerning the case (the relationship between the semantic role of the actant and the case; the principles of ordering and changing the rank of nominal groups, etc.) relate primarily to verbal cases and verbal syntactic constructions. The rest of the valence words are usually described with a verb orientation as a prototypical predicate word.

The valencies of adjectives as predicate words are similar to those of verbs, cf. full plans , familiar everyone , poor resources , and sometimes expressed in the same cases: proud success (be proud success ); equal perimeter (dress perimeter ); like the sun (become like the sun ); worthy praise (merit praise ); ready to work (get ready for the exam ); agree for all (agree for all conditions ).

The valences are arranged in a similar way. predicatives(cm.): ashamed for a friend ; it's a pity birdie .

comparative(see) - the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb - has a valency of the second member of the relation (object of comparison): higher tree , as well as the valency of the aspect: more in length and measures: higher by 3 meters .

Nouns derived from verbs (cf. examination, treatment) or semantically related to verbs (cf. audit, doctor), retain all or part of the verbal valencies, although they are usually (not always) expressed in other cases: home construction brigade [agent] (cf. team building a house), answer critics [addressee] (cf. answer critics ), grandma gift grandson [recipient] (cf. grandmother[something] gave grandson ), story about the trip (tell about the trip ); medicine from the flu (be treated from the flu ); cf. Also: service population , threat rights, discussion travel , passenger bus (cf. drive by bus ), boss department , teacher dancing .

Nouns not formed from verbs can also have semantic valences:

• relational nouns(i.e. expressing relationships - related, social, etc.) have a valence of the second member of the relationship: Brother Masha ; classmate Masha ; peer Masha ;
• parametric nouns have the valency of the parameter value: long one hundred meters – and valency of the parameter carrier: target research , cause disease , way cooking , meaning words , well dollar , color eye , length ropes ;
• words with the meaning of quantity, totality, multitude have the valency of "measured": a bunch of townspeople , majority gathered , group comrades ; herd sheep , flock birds ; bouquet colors, bundle keys .

NOTE. It can be assumed that in quantitative constructions, the names of containers and receptacles also acquire the valency of the measured ( cup water ; plate soup ; bag grain ), which initially do not have it ( broke a glass- Not * glass of water; dropped a bowl of soup Not * bowl of soup); poured the grain out of the bag - Not * bag of grain).

• words denoting spatial and temporal division and orientation, as well as part, have a valence to an integer: top closet , edge cliff , end movie ; leg chair , door closet ;
• valence, i.e. conditioned by lexical semantics, we can also consider the connections words with the meaning of images, texts and other semiotic and informational objects: image Onegin ; portrait Chaliapin ; ghost queens ; plan capture ; list visitors ; results of the year ; story Russia and etc.

Adverbs with valency are few: out of spite to whom ; akin what ; together, threesome etc. with whom ; alone with whom ; on a par with whom ; for the familiar with whom ; furtively, slowly, secretly from whom ; long until what ; contrary with what ; across to whom / what ; near With by whom / how ;

Adverbs with spatial semantics have a controversial status, since in the Russian grammatical tradition an adverb with realized valence is often interpreted as a preposition (see [Grammatika 1980(1):§1654, §1658]), cf. Passed past (adverb) vs. Passed past us(pretext).

2.3 Structurally conditioned (constructive) cases (use of cases as part of constructions)

It is difficult to give such a meaningful or formal definition of a structure that would cover all types of structures (constructions are studied in the literature from different points of view, cf. [Shvedova 2003], [Rakhilina (ed.) 2010]). Words with certain semantics, grammatical forms, prepositions, particles, repetitions, the order of elements can participate in the formation of a construction (compare a construction with an approximate number value: five pieces). An important part many constructions are prepositional and prepositional-case forms. The case is not only determined by the construction, but also determines it, forms it together with other elements - words, word forms, prepositions, particles.

The “constructive” case differs from the controlled one in that it is not predicted by any word included in the construction, but is due to the construction itself or the syntactic function (position) of this case form in the sentence. From a semantic point of view, the constructive case can be both non-valent and valence. For example, in a construct with an age value − To him twenty years- in a quantitative group twenty years there is no valency for the dative case, but in the infinitive construction you decide at the verb decide there is a semantic valency of the subject, but the case design of this actant is not a dictionary characteristic of the verb, but is regulated by syntactic rules.

The first actant of the verb (subject) is valence from a semantic point of view, but from a syntactic point of view it cannot be equated with other actants.

If other actants have the same expression in any form of the verb and in any type of syntactic construction ( performed mazurka , perform mazurka , performing mazurka , performing mazurka ), then the way of expressing the first actant is not predicted by the lexeme. The syntactic expression of this valency is not a constant dictionary characteristic of the verb, but depends on the form and construction in which the verb is used (some constructions also affect the way the object of the transitive verb is expressed, see below):

• in the personal form of the active voice in a two-part sentence, the first actant is expressed in the nominative case and is the subject (requires verb agreement): Artist performs [mazurka];
• with an independent infinitive in an infinitive sentence, the first actant is expressed in the dative case: Artist perform [mazurka], but may not be expressed: To Moscow still go and go; Be silent!(cf. Everyone shut up!); to sleep;
• with a dependent (subjective, objective, target) infinitive, gerund and active participle, the first actant is not expressed, but is calculated according to certain rules. For the subject and target infinitive and gerund, it coincides with the subject of the personal verb:

(1) The artist began to perform the mazurka.= ‘the artist has started and the artist is performing’

(2) The artist came out to perform a mazurka. = ‘the artist has come out and the artist is performing’

(3) Performing the mazurka, the artist sighed.= ‘the artist performed and the artist sighed’

At The first actant of the object infinitive is also not expressed, but coincides with the object of the personal verb:

(4) The king asked the artist to perform a mazurka.= ‘the king asked, the artist will perform’

In the active participle, the first actant coincides with the noun being defined:

(5) The artist who performed the mazurka sighed.= ‘the artist sighed; the artist performed

• in the passive form of the verb and the passive participle, the first actant is expressed in the instrumental case (which, as a rule, is not syntactically obligatory): Mazurka is performed artist ; mazurka performed artist .

Thus, the case form of the first actant (subject) is constructively conditioned, although the subject is one of the valences of the verb.

In Russian (as well as in many other syntactically accusative (see, for example, [Kibrik 2003:171–172]) languages) the way of expressing the object of a transitive verb is also in a special position, which in a passive construction takes the position of the subject and is expressed in the nominative case ( artist performs mazurka – mazurka performed by an artist).

From a formal-syntactic point of view, the constructive case is like the valence ( To him be on duty), and not valence ( To him twenty years) - looks more like a controlled than a freely attachable one.

First of all, the constructive case is similar to the controlled case and differs from the freely attached by constructive obligation: the free case, in general, can be omitted (cf .: bought a suit striped → bought a suit) - with loss of information, but without damage to the syntactic structure (why it can be called free); the constructive case is obligatory element constructions in the sense that without this case form the construction itself does not exist:

• in some cases, when the constructive case is omitted, the construction simply disappears, cf. elective construction: Many from U.S agreed with this – Many agreed with this.;
• in other cases the meaning of the sentence changes, cf. construction with an external possessor: anoint to him wound iodine - anoint the wound iodine[‘self’];
• in third cases the entire syntactic structure is destroyed, cf. construction with "dative age": To him twenty years – ? twenty years.

Similarly, the strongly controlled case is included in the structural minimum of the sentence and cannot be omitted - this makes the sentence incomplete.

In addition, the constructive case is similar to the one controlled by its predetermination, non-variability. Like a verb promise requires the dative case of the addressee ( promise someone), and not genitive or instrumental, so the construction of age requires precisely the dative case of the subject and no other.

As already mentioned above (cf. clause 2.1), the constructive case can be attached to the grammatical form - for example, the genitive comparative ( whiter than snow). However, the verbal constructive cases are not just used in the form of the verb (for example, dative with the infinitive; instrumental with the passive), but are part of the syntactic structure of the sentence - and will be discussed below in the section 2.3.1 Structural cases in sentences(cm.).

Structurally determined case forms occur as a) at the level of the sentence (cf. clause 2.3.1) and b) at the phrase level (see clause 2.3.2).

2.3.1 Structural cases in a sentence

• Subject

Canonical subject(see) expressed nominative case(cm.). In the Russian grammatical tradition, the subject, unlike additions, does not belong to the sphere of control, and its connection with the predicate is called coordination. In some syntactic theories, the nominative case of the subject is considered controlled: just as the subject requires verb-predicate agreement, the personal verb in finite form (unlike impersonal verb(see Impersonality) or infinitive) requires the nominative case of the subject (or object - in passive design(see Voice)) (in the theory "Meaning ⇔ Text" the nominative case of the subject is included in the control model of the predicate word along with other cases, cf. [Mel'chuk 1999:134–139]).

However, the nominative case of the subject still cannot be considered as lexically specified and controlled as indirect cases, since the subject is expressed nominatively in a two-part sentence with any predicate, not only a verb ( Brother is a teacher; Kind brother; Sister is married; village under fire etc.), but neither names, adverbs or prepositional groups, nor a lexically empty linking verb that agrees with the subject, have the valence of the subject (and therefore, the control). In this sense, the nominative case of the subject is not controlled, but constructively conditioned.

• Nominal predicate and co-predicative

The nominal predicate is expressed in the nominative case ( He still child ) And creative predicative(see instrumental case) ( He was completely child ). The co-predicative also has a predicative nature (usually expressed in instrumental, less often in other cases), which has a double connection - with an object and with a verb (cf. the term "duplex"): We remember his boy (cf. also with the adjective: We remember its young / young ).

• Genitive case in negative constructions

Negative constructions with particles can be considered as a special type of constructions. Not And neither, dictating certain rules for the use of the genitive case in place of the accusative or nominative (see. Negation). The genitive case is used:

a. with transitive verbs with negation: He reads newspapers→ He doesn't read newspapers ;

b. in negative existential sentences: News were → Izvestia did not have;

c. in negative-genitive sentences with the meaning of absence: Clouds → Ni cloudlet ; (cf. also genitive sentences with the meaning of a large number: Water something!; To the people!(see below );

d. in elliptical sentences: Neither words! (cf. Your word!); Neither step back!(cf. Step to the right, step to the left - execution).

• Cases in constructions constituted by verb forms

Syntactic constructions can be formed on the basis of the form of the verb, which determines the sentence model with the participation of certain cases:

a. in the passive construction associated with the passive (passive) form of the verb, the subject is expressed in instrumental case: decided assembly ; The stamp is placed operator (Verbs decide, put do not have a dictionary-defined control of the instrumental case, the instrumental case is due to a passive construction);

b. in an impersonal design with impersonally passive(see Reflexivity) the form of the verb (one of the types of an impersonal sentence is associated with it) the subject is expressed in the dative case: To him can't sleep He not sleeping).

c. in the infinitive construction (which forms infinitive sentences), the subject is expressed in the dative case: To him be on duty(cf. the nominative case with the same verb in the personal form: He on duty);

NOTE. The source of the dative case with an independent infinitive is, apparently, not only the gramme of the infinitive, but also modal semantics (the modality of the infinitive sentence is the possibility, impossibility, necessity, etc., see below). Modality (see)), i.e. not only the form (as in the case of the passive), but also the construction, the type of the sentence. If the dative were predetermined only by the gramme of the infinitive, it would be possible with any infinitive. However, other types of infinitives do not allow the dative case - for example, the subject infinitive ( started shooting himself- Not * himself; With a gnashing of teeth, Tchertop-hanov tore them out of the hands of the dumbfounded Perfishka, and began to make fire. myself. [AND. C. Turgenev. End of Chertophanov (1872)]), target infinitive in a simple sentence ( Once sat down to milk a cow myself, with my own hands. [IN. I. Belov. Bays Vologda zaviralnye (1969)]; The brigadier moved to wake Mishka myself . [IN. Belov. Habitual business (1967)]; Me and now everyone New Year I rush to decorate the Christmas tree herself [Not * most], often depriving their children of this pleasure. [WITH. Spivakov. Not everything (2002)]; - A terrible bouquet, I will not carry such a bouquet. Then Anatoly went to hand over the bouquet myself [Not * himself)]. [WITH. Spivakov. Not everything (2002)].

At the same time, in sentences with a modal meaning, the dative with a dependent infinitive is possible: Everything has to be done himself (impersonal offer); Donka shouldn't have unlocked the door himself . [L. M. Leonov. Thief (1927)]; came to sort it out himself (the target turnover, unlike the target infinitive, has its own modality, different from the modality of the main sentence).

• Constructions with predicate ellipsis

Elliptical constructions of this type are formed by a variety of case and prepositional-case forms. What they have in common is that the predicate is formally absent in them, but the meaning is reconstructed up to the semantic class (usually based on case forms). Many case forms in such elliptic constructions can be regarded as actants of this reconstructible predicate, cf. Not a word to father→ ‘don’t say a word to your father’:

(6) Silence!(‘be quiet’); Fire!('shoot'); Air!; Car!('carefully'); Water something!; To the people!(‘a lot has gathered’); I need two tickets please.; Carriage for me!(‘give’, ‘need’); Water!('give'); More tea?; Happiness to you!; Who do you want?; Three rubles from you; You should see a doctor; I'm in the buffet(‘I’m going’) . Are you with me?; Letter for you; To each according to work; All the best for children; You and the cards in hand; Business - time, fun - hour; And why does he need so much money?; Head of the shop to me!; Make way for the young!; Glory to Labor!; Where are you okay?; Here I am for you!; For your health!; For victory!(toast); Attack!; What are you about?('speak'); Are you talking to me?; And about the weather.

• Pseudovalent (imitation) cases

Pseudovalent cases only occur in a sentence, although they are not associated with specific types of sentences. Pseudovalent (imitative) cases formally refer to the verb-predicate, but they are not actants realizing any of its valency, since this verb does not have a corresponding dictionary valency. At the same time, pseudovalent cases express the meaning inherent in "valence" cases - possessor, benefactive, experiencer (which is why they can be called pseudovalent). It can be conditionally considered that pseudovalent cases appear in the sentence (a) as a result of a syntactic process that transforms some original structure, or (b) as a result of “drawing” into the participant’s sentence of another (adjacent) situation.

a) Transformation of the original structure

One of the sources of pseudovalent cases is the transformation of some original structure. A typical example of a pseudovalent case of this origin is the so-called "external possessor".

The external possessor (see, in particular, [Kibrik et al. 2006], [Rakhilina 2010]) is expressed in the dative case of the verb. At the same time, semantically, it is associated with a name that depends on the verb: burned yourself finger (mine finger); Look to him in the eyes (his eyes); anoint brother wound iodine (wound brother ); How gave pete on the back (back petit ); Mote hit to me into the eye (my eye); Came and messed up us mood (is our mood). An adjectival possessor, expressed in the genitive case or a possessive pronoun, has a lower rank, because depends on the complement of the verb. Moving into the position with the verb, the possessor increases its syntactic (and hence communicative) rank. At the same time, the verb has neither the possessor valence, nor any valence in general, expressed by the dative case.

Similar nature (origin) have some types determinants(see 2.4) with the difference that they do not refer to the verb, but to the whole sentence ( At your place bad mood – your mood).

b) “Expanding” the situation by including additional participants

Another source of pseudo-valent cases in a sentence is the "expansion" of the situation by including additional participants.

The verb as a vocabulary unit denotes a situation with a certain number of participants. However, the situation denoted by the whole sentence may have a broader (more complex) meaning, not exhausted by the semantics of the verbal predicate and its own actants. Examples of such an expansion of the situation are the inclusion of “free” cases in the sentence: dative benefit (interest) and dative ethical (for more details, see below). Dative(cm.)).

• Dative of benefit (of interest)

The dative case with benefactive semantics (the so-called dative of purpose, or dative of benefit, or dative of interest) is used with verbs that do not have a dictionary-defined benefactive valency if they denote an action in the interests of another person: Grandma knits mittens grandson ; Buy to me milk; pour to me tea; Sew on to me button etc. Thus, some situation (creation, impact on the object, acquisitions) is interpreted as beneficial, although there is no benefactive verb in the sentence (i.e., a verb with a benefactive valence of the type help[to whom], serve[to whom], provide[to whom] etc.).

• Dative ethical

The so-called dative ethical (or dative of the interested person), which would be more correctly called dative expressive, occurs in a large class of colloquial constructions, is optional and is used to enhance expressiveness:

(7) I them not a sentry to guard this technique; Yes he you in ten minutes any poem will learn; Like me you Will I get a job without education?; This you not to play Chopin; Will he you ride a Zhiguli; talk to me more!; Look to me!

Such a dative introduces a designation of a person into a sentence: these may be participants in a speech act - the speaker ( These to me gossips!), destination ( Like me you Can I climb onto the roof without a ladder?) – or a third party ( I will them guard the technique, how!), which is not involved in the situation described by the verb.

If the dative of benefit expands the denotative situation, including the future possessor in it as a beneficiary, then the dative expressive includes an outsider in the situation (usually a participant in a communicative situation - a speaker or a listener), establishing (or rather, artificially creating) a connection between him and the denotative situation, a participant which he is not.

2.3.2 Structural cases in a phrase

Along with constructions that occur only in sentences, there are a large number of more “local” constructions (some with a very idiomatic meaning), which are different types of phrases (the term is used in a loose sense) and are associated with certain case or prepositional forms:

a. comitative(with the value of compatibility): mother and father(cf. mother and father);

b. elective(with selectivity value): one of us;

c. distributive(with distribution value): received three rubles; parted in the corners; get together on Fridays;

NOTE. Although the distributive construction looks like a phrase, some of its types, strictly speaking, can only occur in a sentence, because impose restrictions on the expression of the subject. For example, in a sentence The kids got candy noun and verb are plural; if the verb is in the singular, the sentence must contain special quantifier words (* The boy got candy → Every got a candy; Boy every day / always got candy).

d. with approximate value: found a dozen mushrooms;

NOTE. The meaning of approximateness can also be expressed by a predicative noun phrase, i.e. as part of the proposal: He is in his thirties / under forties, as well as word order: weigh me three hundred grams of sweets.

e. with size value: the size of a horse;

f. with limit value(spatial or otherwise): children under 12, up to 100 tons;

g. with level value: [stand] waist-deep/knee-deep in water;

h. with degree value: do your best [try], with all legs [to run], loudly / loudly [shout]; eerily, eerily [pale];

i. with comparative: a few kilometers closer, the day before; brighter every day (*light every day);

j. with purpose value: go for mushrooms (*by bread; *by suit); went with a ladle(E. Zamyatin); come for your soul(cf. saying Who is in the forest, who is for firewood);

k. large group of naming constructs:

o name / memory / in honor of someone / what;

o by name / by last name / by nickname X;

o under the name / under the surname / under the pseudonym X;

l. different types of two-case constructions(largely phraseological): cloud cloud; step by step; minute to minute; from day to day; day by day; from the first to the eighth (wagon); from May to October; at any moment; from Thursday to Friday; from heel to toe; from dawn to dusk; from morning to evening.

Numerous introductory constructions adjoin the II class of constructively conditioned cases: fortunately, Unfortunately; In my opinion, eyewitnesses; at first sight and so on. They are not always phrases in the proper sense (cf. fortunately) and are not included in the syntactic structure of the sentence, being elements of the metatext, but outwardly similar to phrases frozen in one form.

Constructions can also include the so-called adverbial use of cases: genitive dates ( come fifth ), creative places ( go shore ), creative time ( admire hours ), creative comparisons ( howl wolf ) and etc.

In the grammar of constructions, the point of view is expressed that all non-valent uses of cases (cf. plaid skirt, get to know each other in the summer and so on. – as well as valence) can be described in terms of structures (cf., for example, [Rakhilina (ed.) 2010].

2.4 Determinants

In academic grammars of 1970 and 1980. a special type of use of case and prepositional-case forms is distinguished, which are considered non-verbal distributors attached to the whole sentence - the so-called 24 (see [Grammar 1970:624–633], [Grammar 1980(2):§ 2022], and also [Shvedova 1964], [Shvedova 1968]):

(8) Fool seven miles is not a detour. Neighbors it is a holiday today. We have guests. For him there are no barriers. Among the delegates a discussion broke out. From the directorate congratulation read Ivanov. By the evening the storm subsided. In the shadow it was cold.

Although 24 are considered freely attached forms, they have a number of significant differences from free conditional cases (case adjunction) and in many ways are close to constructively determined cases:

• 24 stand out at the supply level(non-verbal connection, in terms of academic grammars);
• determinants have distinct communicative component: many 24 are the result of a communicative process of raising the status of the case form by moving it to the left position:

(9) They played chess in the evenings. - circumstance of time (free accession, case adjunction - adverbial position)

(10) In the evenings they played chess. - determinant

• 24 may be structurally binding(the predicted components of the sentence, in terms of G.A. Zolotova [Zolotova 1988:3–16], are included in the structural minimum of the sentence and are considered as analogs of the subject): Petya flu; Neighbors trouble; With her fainting. Offers Flu; Trouble; Fainting are not complete messages either structurally or semantically;
• many 24 only outwardly look like free distributors of a “ready-made” offer, - semantically they are related to the material of the sentence(they are part of the original semantic structure), and their final design in the form of an “independent” case form can be considered the result of a process similar to the removal of a noun phrase to the initial position to increase its communicative significance: Neighbors son returned from the army – son of neighbors returned from the army(cf. Two left boxes – boxes two left; cf. Also dative of external possessor(see section 2.3 Transformation of the original structure)).

Therefore, it is logical to correlate 24 not with freely attached, but with constructively determined cases, considering them to be a special kind of constructions.

2.5 Free cases (free attachment of cases to a word)

Freely attached (lexically unconditioned) case forms perform a characterizing function and express attributive or adverbial meanings: notebook Masha ; goods for children ; take till Saturday ; have lunch At the institute .

The principles of interpreting phrases with valence-conditioned and freely attached case distributors are similar in many respects, there is no impassable boundary between them. If the interpretation of valence combinations is directly based on the semantics of the control predicate, then the interpretation of “free” combinations also often involves referring to a predicate that is mentally reconstructed: cough medicine– ‘a potion that helps get rid of a cough’, suit material– ‘material that is intended for sewing a suit’; stairs to the attic- stairway leading to the attic.

2.6 Use of cases at the text level and outside the text

Outside of a sentence, cases can be used at the level of the whole text, for example in headings, cf. " Oblomov», « To the muse”, as well as the names of various objects, in signs, signs, labels, etc. (i.e. as a special kind of message), for example: " At a lake"- movie; " About communication» - radio broadcast; " At Palych" - shop; " Spartacus" - cinema; " To the stadium' is a pointer.

3 Case in grammatical descriptions

In traditional grammar, there were mainly two issues discussed in connection with cases: the status of "additional" cases (partitive, locative, etc.) and the meaning of each case. Traditional descriptions have set themselves the task of highlighting as many differentiated meanings of individual cases as possible. The instrumental and genitive cases were especially ambiguous. Thus, for example, the instrumental case had the meanings of an object, a tool, time, place, comparison, mode of action, etc. (see [Potebnya 1958]).

In the second third of the twentieth century. classical works by R.O. Yakobson [Yakobson 1985] and E. Kurilovich [Kurilovich 1962], in which an attempt was made to highlight the common meanings of cases. The theory of Jacobson, who tried to formulate the invariant meaning of each case on the basis of a combination of three differential features (orientation, volume, peripherality), did not receive further development, although the features proposed by Jacobson are used by some researchers in case descriptions. As for Kurilovich's ideas, they are taken into account in one way or another by most modern case theories. Kurilovich distinguishes grammatical (syntactic) cases and specific (adverbial) cases. In the syntactic function, the case ending "does not have any semantic significance, but is a purely syntactic indicator of the subordination of the name to the verb." The specific, or adverbial, case has its own semantic content (place, time, purpose, reason) and is associated both with the semantics of the noun (cf.: forest- place, In the evening- time), and with the semantics of the verb. Kurilovich considers grammatical cases as the core of the case system - nominative, accusative, genitive (in Russian, the dative should also be included in them); for them, the syntactic function - the expression of subject-object relations - is primary, and the "adverbial" function is the expression of adverbial, or adverbial, meanings (cf. passed five kilometers ; rode a whole day - accusative spatial or temporal extent; I arrived fifth of May - genitive dates) - secondary. For the instrumental case, the adverbial, adverbial function is primary: embroider cross stitch - creative way howl wolf - instrumental comparison (the prepositional in the meaning of place adjoins the instrumental), and the secondary is the function of expressing object relations with individual verbs, for example, be proud son (cf. the objective meaning of the prepositional case: take care about children ).

In the works of A.A. Zaliznyak [Zaliznyak 1967]; [Zaliznyak 1973] were developed based on the ideas of A.N. Kolmogorov and V.A. Uspensky, formal methods for identifying cases and principles for describing the Russian case system as a whole.

In studies devoted to cases in the last third of the twentieth century. presented as a formal approach to the description of cases (when case forms are considered only as formal manifestations of syntactic relations), and a semantic approach (when they are considered as semantically loaded).

In the works of the formal-syntactic (and, first of all, generative) direction, a structural function is attributed to case forms, while the question of whether the use of case forms is associated with the transfer of certain semantics is not discussed (cf., for example,). It is the structural-syntactic component that is the main one in modern formal definitions of the case, cf. the most common of them, formulated by B. Blake, according to which the case conveys the relation of the dependent name to the verb, another name, preposition, or other part of speech.

In other works and linguistic dictionaries, the authors mention the presence of both structural and semantic functions of case forms, cf., for example. Ch. Fillmore's theory of deep cases [Fillmore 1981] and the theory of valency of predicate words formulated within the framework of the Meaning ⇔ Text model (Yu.D. Apresyan, A. K. Zholkovsky, I.A. Melchuk, see [Apresyan 1974], [Melchuk 1999]) and developed in the works of representatives of the Moscow Semantic School (Yu.D. Apresyan, I.M. Boguslavsky and others, see [Apresyan et al. 2010]).

A great contribution to understanding the semantics and functions of case forms was made by typological studies. In the works of A.E. Kibrik (for example, [Kibrik 2003]), the features of the Russian case system are revealed against the background of typologically different languages. In the works of representatives of the St. Petersburg typological school (A.A. Kholodovich, V.S. Khrakovsky, etc., see [Kholodovich 1974], [Khrakovsky 2004]), as well as in the works of E.V. Paducheva ([Paducheva 2002], [Paducheva 2004]), S.A. Krylov ([Krylov 2001], [Krylov 2008] and others) examines the role of case forms in the expression of voice and diathesis, in the communicative organization of the utterance.

In the concept of G.A. Zolotova [Zolotova 1988] considers the role of case forms in the semantic, syntactic and communicative organization of a sentence. Developing the ideas about verbal and freely attached cases, G.A. Zolotova developed a theory of the use of case forms (non-prepositional and prepositional), which, within the framework of this theory, are called syntaxemes. The function of a syntaxeme is its constructive role as a syntactic unit in the construction of a communicative unit.

There are three possible functions for the syntaxe:

I. isolated use(for example, as a header): For new settlers; At the forester; To a poet friend; hiking trails;

II. use as a component of a sentence– predicted component: to the city– 10 kilometers; Ivanovs it was cold; To you go out; predictive component: Bed - up to the ceiling ; I - from the front ; Money at Savelich ; This song - you ; Delivery to work transport enterprises; offer distributor: From window the forest is visible; In the rain huts do not cover; rainy in the evenings grandma held meetings;

III. conditional use as a component of a phrase: reach up to 40 degrees ; envy neighbor ; graze geese .

Depending on which set of functions out of the three possible ones the syntaxeme has, they differ:

• free syntaxemes (act in functions I, II, III);
• conditioned syntaxemes (functions II, III);
• related syntaxemes (function III).

In academic grammars of the Russian language of 1970 and 1980. ([Grammar 1970], [Grammar 1980]) the description of the meanings and functions of cases is based mainly on the concept of N.Yu. Shvedova, who distinguishes in the sphere of syntactic relations conditional(as part of a phrase) and unconditional(as part of a sentence and text) the use of cases (cf. [Shvedova 1978]). In the field of semantic relations, there are three common values cases - subjective, objective and attributive (including adverbial-attributive). Within this group are opposed abstract And specific values. The abstract values ​​are the values ​​of the object ( afraid thunderstorms , submit destiny , listen music , supply equipment ) and subject ( water not left, to him enough time, said ancient ), to which the meaning of the necessary informative completion (complementary) adjoins, when “the meaning of the case as a separate unit cannot be established”: the case form “does not lend itself to any separate semantic characteristic” [Grammar 1980(1):§1162] and must be interpreted together with the word which it informatively completes, cf. three comrade , higher tree , pass for talker , fraught with worsening and so on. The specific ones include particular types of definitive meaning, cf.: Human affairs ; go shore ; wait three years ; buy[smth.] bags and so on.

The main meanings of cases distinguished in grammatical descriptions (objective, subjective and attributive) are based on a generalization different types objects, different types of subjects and different types of attributive and adverbial relations. At the same time, each of the Russian cases has its own specifics, which makes it possible to distinguish it from other cases not only by the set of endings, but also by linguistic behavior. So, the accusative is the case of a direct object with a verb, which is impossible with names; genitive, on the contrary, has predominant applicative functions. The dative (in certain constructions) reveals a number of features characteristic of the subject. The instrumental is the most “adverbial” (in terms of E. Kurilovich) of the cases, which has a wide range of adverbial meanings. At the same time, this is a case that forms a nominal predicate (along with the nominative) and the subject of a passive construction, "displaced" from the position of the subject. A special place in the system of cases is occupied by the nominative, which, in addition to the naming function (due to which it represents the entire case paradigm), is the case of the subject and is not used after prepositions (except for the borrowed a la), and prepositional, which, on the contrary, is not used without prepositions.

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• Vinogradov V.V. On the forms of the word // Vinogradov V.V. Selected works. Studies in Russian grammar. M. 1975.
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• Janda L.A., Clancy S. The Case Book for Russian. Slavica. 2002.
• Malchukov A.L., Spencer A. (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Case. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.