How the pyramid was built. How were the Egyptian pyramids built? It was concrete

08.12.2021

The ancient Egyptian pyramids are still full of unsolved mysteries today. Many secrets of the construction of these gigantic structures still remain a mystery. The architectural knowledge of Ancient Egypt was lost, and modern science was not able to restore all the technological methods of architects of the ancient past. Most of the ideas about the course of the creation of the pyramids are based on hypotheses and assumptions. Other facts, on the contrary, are exactly known thanks to the works of historians and archaeologists.

Tools and materials

There are several theories about how the pyramids of ancient Egypt were built. The main material for the construction of these colossal structures was stone. But how was it processed? The Egyptians used diorite hammers and sledgehammers. The builders also needed a solution of limestone (it was crushed to a powder using limestone balls). The resulting mixture was required for laying the cladding.

When the Cheops pyramid and other monuments of the ancient Egyptian civilization were built, the Egyptians were not able to process all metals. But copper was available to them, and it was from it that important building tools were made: chisels, hatchets and adzes. The grooves on the pyramid blocks show that sand saws were also used. Ancient builders had metal drills at their disposal. The tips on them were replaced with copper tubes.

Materials for the construction of the main monuments of Ancient Egypt were mined in special quarries. Granite blocks could be broken out of the rock mass (for this, wooden wedges swollen in water were used). There is also a less popular point of view about creating the details of the pyramids using specific concrete, which was made from limestone. The first to put forward this hypothesis was the French chemist of the 20th century, Joseph Davidovits.

Construction progress

From wood (acacia, sycamore, etc.), the Egyptians made handles for their stone and metal tools. It was also necessary during rigging (beams, levers, etc.). To move large blocks of stone, a device called a drag was used. Blocks of granite or limestone, necessary for facing the stepped pyramid, differed in significant size. Most often, it was possible to deliver them to the construction site only in this way. The gaps between the walls were filled with raw bricks.

How were the pyramids built, if their construction required huge labor resources? For this purpose, sculptors, masons, stonemasons were driven to the place of the future royal burial. The blocks were stacked in regular rows. People were also harnessed to the drags, who, as a rule, were disenfranchised slaves.

Some materials were delivered by water along the Nile. This is how stones were transported from Middle and Upper Egypt, Aswan granite, fine-grained sandstone, which was taken from the coastal rocks of Tura. Gradually, these methods improved. When the Egyptians built the first pyramids, it was the 27th century BC. e. The oldest tomb was erected for Pharaoh Djoser from the III dynasty. She and other early pyramids were of the step pyramid type. Then, in the era of the Middle and New Kingdoms, the so-called large tombs appeared. Outwardly, they already differed from their archaic prototypes, the most ancient of which were discovered in the village of Saqqara.

Although the toolkit in Egypt has hardly changed over the millennia, the organization of work has improved over time. The pharaoh who built the first pyramid did not even dream of building the size that the architects achieved during the reign of the 4th dynasty. Under the ruler Khafre, the blocks reached a weight of 150 tons. Most likely, such blocks were delivered to the construction site using rollers.

Testimony of Herodotus

Since the Nile was extremely important for the transportation of blocks and stones, the construction of the tombs was carried out faster during the periods of flooding of the great African river (each annual flood lasted four months). In such cases, materials were brought directly to the site of direct construction. An embankment with a small portico was erected next to the pyramid. She hosted the funeral procession. During construction, without the embankment, it was impossible to provide the complex with building materials.

It is difficult to judge how the pyramids were built from historical sources. An exception are the records of the great historian of antiquity, Herodotus. He lived in the 5th century BC. e. and visited Egypt. The Greek did not know the local language and used the services of an interpreter to collect information about the pyramids. But even his information is fragmentary. By the 5th century BC e. the Egyptians themselves had already lost many of the secrets of their ancestors.

Nevertheless, many interesting and important facts about how the pyramids were built can be found in Herodotus. For example, he argued that the first pharaoh of the historical era, Menes, could already divert the channel of the Nile in the direction he needed. There is no doubt that the builders of the pyramids resorted to the same methods.

Machines and embankments

The most difficult dilemma about the technique of erecting ancient Egyptian tombs is related to the question of how the blocks are raised. For example, how did Cheops - the pharaoh who built the largest pyramid - ensure that huge blocks were at a height of tens of meters?

Herodotus assumed that the Egyptians had large wooden machines, with the help of which the necessary blocks were raised from ledge to ledge. The second answer belongs to Diodorus Siculus. He believed that the Egyptians did not possess any machines - huge mounds were created instead. Stones climbed over them. Some Egyptologists have speculated about swinging lifts.

It is also possible that the Egyptians knew the device of the shaduf - a lifting mechanism similar to a crane for wells. It was a beam swinging along a horizontal axis. A stone was hung from it, after which the workers pulled the ropes and raised it to the next level of masonry. Next came the wags, levers and wedges. When repeating such an operation, it was possible to do without earthen embankments (the creation of which was an extremely laborious task).

In trying to understand how and who built the pyramids, archaeologists have found important evidence in favor of the second theory. The presence of lifting mechanisms among the ancient Egyptians is only a hypothesis. But traces of embankments were found by several researchers at once. Their traces were found in the courtyard of the temple of Pharaoh Nyuserre, next to the pyramid of Amenemhet, etc. Information about the mound is in the papyrus belonging to the era of Anastasi I.

mastabas

About 120 Egyptian pyramids have survived to this day. Most of them belong to the eras of the Middle and Old Kingdoms. The most widely known of them are located in Giza in the vicinity of Cairo. In what year were the earliest pyramids built? Around 2650 BC e. the stepped tomb of Djoser appeared.

The "classical" pyramids had predecessors. We are talking about mastabas - funerary buildings. They housed underground chambers. These buildings got their name from the Arabs. Outwardly, they resemble truncated pyramids. Even then, the inner walls of these buildings were covered with hieroglyphs and paintings.

Who built the pyramids in their standard sense, used the experience of the ancestors who built mastabas. They were built for the very first pharaohs. During the I Dynasty (XXXI-XXIX centuries BC), tombs were built from unbaked bricks made from river silt and clay. They were called adobes. Mastabas appeared in Abydos, Saqqara and Upper Egypt. There was also Memphis and the necropolis of the early dynasties.

Early pyramids

From the III Dynasty to our time, not only the pyramid of Djoser has survived, but also the unfinished pyramid of Sekhemkhet (it is also called the Buried Pyramid). She was discovered in 1951. The height of the ruins is 10 meters, but if the construction was completed, the height would be 70 meters.

Who built the pyramids in Egypt, wanted to create an eternal monument to the power of the pharaohs. It took a long time to build such buildings. However, sometimes the pharaohs died suddenly, when there was not even a ready plan for the future tomb. This happened, among other things, with the ruler Snefru, who lived in the XXVII-XXVI centuries. BC e. Due to the limited time, the architects had to go for non-standard solutions. To speed up the construction process, they changed the angle of inclination.

The pyramid turned out to be an unusual and even strange shape. Nevertheless, the Egyptians achieved the main task - the building stood the test of time. Today it is known as the Bent Pyramid in the Dashkhur necropolis. There are other similar buildings in this area. The Pink Pyramid is located in the north of Dashkhur. In the 26th century BC e. it was the tallest building in the world. Even in the future, only the pyramid of Khafre and the pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops (was built under Sneferu's successor) could beat her record.

The "pink" tomb has become a real milestone in the history of construction. It was she who turned out to be the first pyramid with a regular pyramidal shape. The name was given to it because of the characteristic limestone. At sunset, it turns pink. Inside the building there are three chambers adjacent to each other.

Pyramid of Menkaure

The most famous Egyptian pyramids are the pyramids of Giza (IV dynasty, XXVI century BC). Unlike previous similar structures, they have a strict geometric shape. There are three in total. The Pyramid of Menkaure (or Menkuar) is located next to the Sphinx (and the famous pyramid of Cheops was built near it). Its height is about 66 meters (it is lower than its neighbors, although it has another name - "Heru", that is, "high").

A characteristic feature of the Menkaure pyramid was its facing with red Aswan granite. It was partially replaced by limestone, from which white slabs are made. In the 16th century, the facing was removed by the Mamluks. And in the XII century, Sultan al-Malik al-Aziz set out to destroy the Giza necropolis. Since the tomb of Menkaure was the smallest of the three, the demolition began from there. The building, however, proved to be so stable that it was impossible to get rid of it without too much expense. As a result, the Sultan abandoned his dubious idea. The Pyramid of Menkaure was the last pyramid of the era of the great pyramids. After it, the royal tombs traditionally decreased.

The pyramid of Menquar has three small satellite pyramids (G3-a, G3-b, G3-c). They were erected for the wives of the pharaoh. Small temples were attached to the pyramids for religious rituals. All of them were looted in antiquity.

One of the seven wonders of the world

The largest of the pyramids of Giza and all of Egypt as a whole is the pyramid of the pharaoh Cheops (was built around 2600 BC). It remains the only wonder of the world of antiquity that has survived to this day (others were destroyed by natural disasters, people or time). The pyramid was built in the vicinity of the then Egyptian capital of Memphis. Today, not far from Giza is Cairo.

The architect of the pyramid was the nephew of its customer, Pharaoh Cheops, Hemiun, who bore the title of vizier. The construction of the great monument of the era took twenty years. Pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops was built of granite and limestone (right on a limestone hill). She used to wear an ancient veneer that made her glow peach in the sun. In 1168, Cairo was sacked and burned during another war. Local residents removed the cladding from the structure to use white limestone in the construction of new homes. Another lost element of the pyramid was the pyramidion - a gilded stone, which was installed on top of the building.

Tomb of Khafre

The Great Pyramid of Cheops was built about the year of the construction of another pyramid of Giza - the Pyramid of Khafre (it is the second largest pyramid in Ancient Egypt). Next to it is the Great Sphinx. The tombs of Cheops and Khafre outwardly almost do not differ. Next to the sarcophagus in the second of them, the Egyptians for the first time installed a niche for canopic vessels, where the organs of the deceased pharaoh were folded.

At the time of Khafre, the pyramid was only part of a large religious complex. It also included two temples, a port, and a small tomb for the pharaoh's wife. Since Khafre was not in good health, before the pyramid was built for him, a blank for the future structure appeared in the Giza Valley. She was noticeably smaller. This blank was built in case of sudden death of the ruler. The precaution was unnecessary. The pharaoh lived to see the completion of construction (therefore, the large pyramid turned out to be built on top of the small one).

Late pyramids

The tradition of building pyramids was preserved in Egypt until the XII dynasty (XVIII century BC). Later, such architecture became characteristic of the neighboring Meroitic kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan. The later Egyptian pyramids gradually decreased in size. Some of them have survived to this day in a distorted form. For example, the pyramid of Userkaf today is a pile of poorly processed blocks.

Late tombs are still explored much worse than their more famous predecessors. Over the millennia, the interiors have been destroyed or flooded (as happened with the pyramid of Senusret I). However, sometimes luck smiled at archaeologists and they found unique artifacts. In Saqqara, in the pyramid of Unas, the ancient "Pyramid Texts" were discovered. This monument of funeral and religious literature covers the inner walls of the last refuge of the deceased king. The "Texts" contain magic formulas, hymns, prayers, myths, etc.

The Black Pyramid, built in Dashkhur for Amenemhat III, is original in its own way. Its base was made of unbaked bricks. It got its name due to the black rubble that forms the hill (the base of the pyramid). The building itself is made of stone, clay and adobe. The mistake of the architects was the construction of the tomb in the lowlands, where groundwater immediately began to seep into the underground chambers. As a result of this natural impact, the structure was covered with cracks and sank significantly.

The architectural appearance of Ancient Egypt was rapidly changing during the period of the Old Kingdom. Mastaba - stone foundations were replaced by pyramidal complexes. The evolution of construction took several centuries.

The life of the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt

Construction pyramids in ancient Egypt was preceded by the creation of a mastaba - a platform at ground level, made of high-quality granite or marble. Under the site, underground tunnels, a burial chamber and rooms for storing things and products were previously built.

In the last pyramids of Egypt of the fifth dynasty, the chamber where the sarcophagus with the body of the pharaoh was kept was mounted from marble or granite blocks at a level above the ground with an entrance at a height of 10-20 meters. This made it possible to save on excavation work.

Giza Plateau. Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu). 80s of the last century. A photo.

During the earthworks, the builders lived in a number of built temporary structures or underground structures, that is, not far from the site where the pyramids were built.

Burials of ordinary workers and employees were carried out in the zone of construction of the burial complex in the allotted place.

Part of the local population, mostly women, cooked food and baked bread, brought water in jugs from the Nile River or from canals built specifically to supply water to the village of craftsmen. Food was prepared not only for hired workers, but also for slaves.

At the same time, up to 10 thousand workers and employees worked on the pyramid, and the same number prepared blocks in limestone and marble quarries, both near the pyramid and hundreds of kilometers away.

Most of the marble and granite blocks were supplied along the Nile from the stone mines of Kom Ombo and finishing materials from Syria and Libya.

Sectional Pyramid of Ancient Egypt

If we consider the internal contents of the pyramid in a section, then it is easy to determine the place for installing the sarcophagus - the burial chamber, somewhere in the center of the pyramid, with the installation of five to seven ventilation ducts and hatches of various sections with an inclination of 45 degrees.

From above, the sarcophagus is protected by a tent-type canopy made of multi-ton marble slabs, which enhances the fastening and protection of the sarcophagus from the weight of the ceiling, the subsidence of the masonry blocks of the pyramids of ancient Egypt from above, in the early projects leading to its destruction.

Work on the construction of the burial chamber, underground passages, grottoes, false passages, lighting and ventilation shafts, tunnels, dead ends, anti-vandal bolts, corner fastenings, wastewater discharge systems and stormwater sewers were carried out before the construction of the pyramid, the so-called zero construction cycle.

Question: “How did they carry a multi-ton sarcophagus through such narrow tunnels?” is fundamentally wrong. It was installed before the start pyramid building in ancient egypt, on a pre-built mastaba or below it at a depth of 20-60 meters!

The embalmed body of the pharaoh was brought into the sarcophagus along the corridors already at the end of the construction of the main building. With him, food and clothing were brought in, which could be useful to him in the other world. Upon completion of the loading of the burial chamber and the sarcophagus, the entrance and ventilation tunnels were covered with multi-ton granite slabs. Small holes were left in them for the passage of air and the communication of the pharaoh with the world.
Neither marble latches nor deep mines saved the tomb from robbery.

Everything that was built above the level of the mastaba, such as ventilation shafts, was carried out during the laying of stone blocks.
Compared to the processing of tunnels and passages with a simple copper chisel with a low surface quality, the walls of the burial room are made with special diligence - they are polished and painted with hieroglyphs.

Construction of the pyramids of ancient Egypt

Assembly of blocks in the construction of the ancient pyramids of Egypt

No one raised blocks of 20 tons to the height of the pyramid, they were prepared on site in the formwork from Egyptian cedar boards, on polymer concrete with additives from marble and granite chips from stone quarry waste. The solution was kneaded on the spot, water, boards and building materials were brought to the height along the ramp. The larger the stone block was planned, the less expensive wood was spent on the formwork.

In earlier pyramids, the space between the burial chamber and the outer contour was filled with rubble and waste from quarries. From above, the pyramid was lined with polished limestone slabs and blocks.
There are almost no stone blocks inside - they were used only for fastening the passages of tunnels, shafts, props and stretch marks.

Pyramids of Ancient Egypt: Photos

Egyptian pyramid building material

The lack of stone blocks was filled in almost all pyramids with raw brick, which is still produced in large quantities for the construction of housing.

There was also a construction quarry near the pyramids, but the limestone here was of poor quality with a high content of sand. A visit to the passages of the pyramids and the opening of collapses indicates a weak fastening of the internal ligament of the body of the pyramid, consisting of fragments and pieces left over from the processing of limestone blocks and slabs, which went to the external surface finish and installation of the pyramid.

This method of economical use of materials is used in our time in construction, the outer surface is made of high-quality bricks, and the inner part is filled with waste with a polymer mortar on cement.

The order of execution of polymer concrete blocks is shown in one of the pyramid drawings, and is no different from the modern one - wood formwork and mortar.

Egyptian Pyramid of Pharaoh Teti and Djoser

The foundation for the multi-ton pyramid was not built; the foundation was taken from the solid limestone of the sole of one of the natural hills - the plateau.

The construction project of the ancient pyramid of Egypt provided for the burial area of the relatives and wives of the pharaoh, sometimes next to small ones.

The lack of geodetic study of the soil, the presence of groundwater, as a rule, led to the premature destruction of the pyramid, but this rarely happened. In the floodplain of the flood meadows of the Nile, the construction of pyramids was not carried out, and the foothill territory occupied by burials did not have underground groundwater.

The pyramids, washed away by the high level of the Nile during the years of the flood, were destroyed almost to the ground.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, in the zone where the pyramids were located, there were mountain ranges that collapsed from the waters of the ancient sea in the river valley, the sun and heat - turning into sand and rubble.

Pyramids of Ancient Egypt video

It has been established that the famous pyramid of Cheops contains more than two million stone blocks of impressive size. Each structural element weighs from two to fifteen tons. The blocks are so tightly fitted one to the other that there is no way to stick a narrow blade of a knife between them. Despite their colossal size, the pyramids have very precise proportions. How did the ancients achieve ideality?

The answer to this was sought by the ancient Greeks. The well-known historian and traveler of antiquity, Herodotus, suggested that the pyramids were built using special wooden machines that could lift blocks of stone sequentially from one ledge of the building to another. Other researchers of that time believed that the blocks were transported along a gently sloping earth embankment by dragging or using wooden rollers.

Herodotus in his writings indicates that up to one hundred thousand people were involved in the construction of large pyramids at the same time, who worked on one structure for several decades.

In the 70s of the last century, Japanese engineers tried to build a smaller copy of the pyramid, using a block lifting device and an inclined embankment. But their efforts did not lead to positive results, the experiment failed - the friction between the blocks and the ground was too great. Obviously, the ancient builders knew some special secret, which was subsequently lost and did not reach our times.

How were the pyramids built in Egypt?

Here is one of the methods that serious scientists and engineers consider suitable for the construction of pyramids, with the state of the art that existed several thousand years ago. Stone blocks climbed the pyramid from four sides at once. On each side of the block, a frame made of wooden logs was installed, which had struts. Between the racks of the frame structure there was a thicker log, attached to the frame with bronze rods.

Opposite such a structure, several logs were laid, tying them so that the flooring was just above the edge of the step. On such a log flooring, the block was pulled up and, by means of levers, was installed on a wooden sled. A long strong rope was attached to the sled, which was pulled by several workers by joint efforts. The rotation of the log, fixed on bronze rods, reduced friction.

When the center of gravity of a stone block passed over the edge of the next layer of blocks, the element turned over and took a horizontal position in the required place. The sleigh was lightly returned down for the next block.

As calculations show, with this technology, no more than fifty workers would be required to lay one two-ton block.

Unfortunately, such engineering calculations exist so far only on paper. To confirm or disprove the effectiveness of the described technology, a full-fledged experiment would be needed, which should be very expensive. Yet the described technology is more credible than the arguments given by a number of researchers in favor of the fact that the pyramids were actually built by powerful aliens.

The majestic Egyptian buildings are impressive, so the question involuntarily arises: how were the pyramids built?

The pyramid is the tomb for the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. The pyramids were built from about 2700 to 1800 BC.

Having ascended the throne, each pharaoh began to build a pyramid in which, after his death, he would be buried. And the richer and more powerful the pharaoh was, the more powerful was his tomb.

Well, let's consider how all these great structures were built. For example, take the pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops (Khufu). This pyramid is called the "Great" because it is the most studied and largest of all the surviving pyramids.

Scientists calculated the total weight of the stone blocks that were processed and stacked by workers in a pyramid. It is 6.5 million tons! One part of scientists believe that the construction lasted 20 years and 100,000 people took part in it. Another part believes that even such an army of builders could not build a pyramid in two decades. Also, most likely, construction was not carried out all year round, but only during the flood of the Nile. The duties of the builders included that they had to be several tens of meters above the ground (the total height of the pyramid is 146.6 meters), and turn, lift and plant huge blocks weighing about 15 tons. There are 2.3 million similar stone blocks in the Great Pyramid. If we take into account that the builders worked ten hours a day, and the time of the flood of the Nile in a year was 3 months, then the workers would have to put up four blocks in one minute! And within an hour, they would have already put up about 240 stone blocks! At such a high speed, precise calculation had to be used to maintain the geometry of the pyramid. But in the construction of the pyramid, such primitive mechanisms as ropes, levers and wooden rollers were used.

There are various hypotheses about how such heavy stone blocks were lifted to the site where the construction took place. For example, that the Egyptians poured bricks and soil, and a stone block passed through it to a given height. Most likely, the builders used several mounds to make it more convenient to lift stones from several sides at once.

But this hypothesis does not withstand heavy criticism. Those who think otherwise say that a plane that goes from the ground straight to the top of the pyramid at a slope of 1:10 would need an embankment of 1460 m. The volume of this embankment would be 3 times larger than the pyramid itself! This is eight million cubic meters against two and a half million. If the steepness of the rise is large, then it will be impossible to lift stones along it. For such an embankment - which is 1.5 km long and 150 m high - soil and brick will not serve as building material. Calculations have shown that such embankments will settle under their own weight.

Another hypothesis says that the builders used a spiral shape made of bricks. Such a plane requires less cost and material. However, scientists calculated and came to the conclusion that the spiral could end long before the top of the pyramid. And the corners of the structure would be the most difficult for them to do.

Now consider what technological solutions were used in the construction of the pyramids. Many hypotheses have been put forward on this question. Most contradict each other or are completely mutually exclusive. Unfortunately, none of them stand the test of strength. What can not be said about the pyramids that have survived to this day and are patiently waiting for the researchers to find answers to their riddles.

The construction of the Egyptian pyramids to this day remains one of the most mysterious topics for mankind. There is a lot of controversy about who and how built these beautiful structures. So, on the issue of the origin of objects, several assumptions can be distinguished at once:

The first and most common version is based on the thesis that numerous slaves were involved in the construction of the pyramids. They were forced to lift the blocks to the top along specially constructed ramps. At the same time, according to the theory, the stones were processed with copper tools, and lifts were also used for transportation;
The second version, like all subsequent theories, is an assumption with a fantastic bias. We are talking about the fact that the pyramids are the result of the influence of the energy of the Atlanteans, who forced the stones to move only by the power of thought;
The third hypothesis is connected, of course, with the activities of aliens who, in ancient times, built pyramids for their specific purposes;
They also say that at the time of the construction of the pyramids there was a special human civilization in which all people were at least 2.5 m tall.

These are far from all existing assumptions, but the essence of the rest is not much different from those given above.

As you can see, one can almost endlessly talk about the origin of the pyramids, since no specific evidence in favor of any one theory has yet been presented. However, no less interesting and controversial is the question of the construction technology of the Egyptian pyramids. There is also a certain discussion here, but all hypotheses are justified solely from a technical point of view, which makes it possible, at least, not to doubt the possibility of their real existence.

In this article, we will consider the main technologies for building pyramids in Ancient Egypt, noting the arguments in their favor, as well as the existing shortcomings. But first, we note the main features common to the vast majority of assumptions about a particular technology:

It is an indisputable fact that the technology of the Egyptians improved over time. This is confirmed by real facts obtained during the study of the pyramids of various years of construction. It has been established that later designs are characterized by a different, improved technology;
The bulk of theories are based on the fact that the Egyptians cut blocks in quarries for construction. In this case, mainly copper tools were used, for example, chisels, chisels, punches, etc.

In view of the latter circumstance, significant differences between theories are observed in matters of transportation of blocks and methods of their installation.

Now let us consider in detail the specific technologies, in accordance with which, perhaps, the pyramids of Egypt were built.

From Herodotus to the present day

The only source that contains at least some information about the construction of the pyramids in Ancient Egypt are the descriptions of Herodotus. Actually, the first theory is based on these descriptions. So, the main provisions of this technology:

Stones for construction were quarried, where they were hollowed out with tools;
The transportation of stones to the construction site was carried out with the help of the manual power of slaves, having previously laid a wide, solid road to the destination;
The actual construction of the pyramid was carried out in stages, with ledges. Initially, the lowest stones were laid, which could be done without any additional devices. For all subsequent steps of the pyramid, wooden platforms were used. Moreover, the same platform, upon completion of the construction of one stage, was simply transferred to the next stage.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the stages of construction. First of all, let's talk about the material used.

About stones

So, in accordance with the most common opinion about the technology of building pyramids, stones mined in quarries served as the material. By their composition, the blocks were predominantly limestone, and, consequently, were quite soft. This allowed them to be processed with copper tools.

Simultaneously with limestone materials, harder stones were also used: from basalt, quartzite, granite. They were processed by more powerful tools. So, the sawing of such stones and their drilling were carried out using abrasives (for example, quartz sand). And the hieroglyphs were applied by using quartz cutters. Interestingly, granite, which is the most durable, was split using thermal shock. This happened as follows: a natural crack was found in the rock, the area around which was heated, and then abruptly cooled. As a result, the breed split.

In favor of this theory, its supporters refer to the mass of stones from which the pyramids are built. The fact is that their weight, as a rule, is no more than a few tons. And this allows us to talk about a high level of their transportability.

By the way, adherents of the classical theory also substantiate the reasons for choosing the shape and size of the blocks for the pyramids. In their opinion, reducing the size would significantly complicate the processing process.
However, the assumption about this technology also has a significant drawback: if we agree that the construction of the pyramids was carried out in this way, then it is impossible to imagine how laborious the whole process was. However, the timing of the construction of the Egyptian pyramids was really impressive: according to the same Herodotus, only the road for transporting stone blocks was built over 10 years.

About delivery

The fact of the incredible difficulty of delivering building material directly to the site of the future pyramid is generally recognized. And it is precisely according to the methods of delivering stones that separate areas of the classical theory of construction technology differ from each other:

1. The first assumption is based on frescoes, often found in ancient Egyptian temples. They usually depict people dragging huge statues of various rulers behind them. In accordance with this, some researchers have calculated the possibility of moving stone blocks in this way. The essence of this method is as follows: several people (the number depended on the mass of the stone) pull a large sled behind them, on which a block (or several blocks) is placed. It is believed that the Egyptians poured water on the runners of such sledges to ensure sufficient glide.

In parallel with this, according to the followers of the hypothesis, a technique based on the use of rollers was also used. In Egypt, paved brick roads were quite developed, along which it was more convenient not to drag a sled with blocks, but to roll the blocks themselves on rollers.

In principle, such assumptions are quite real and feasible from the point of view of physics. However, there is one nuance that researchers do not take into account: in some pyramids there are huge, powerful and massive stones, the mass of which reaches 300 tons. It is absolutely impossible to move them by dragging;

2. The following block delivery method was proposed relatively recently. It is based on cradle mechanisms found during excavations of some later sanctuaries. It has been experimentally proved that it is possible to move a block placed on four mechanisms by rolling.

However, no concrete evidence has yet been found that the Egyptians used cradle mechanisms specifically for blocks. In addition, this hypothesis is characterized by the same drawback as the previous one: blocks that are large in mass cannot be moved using such mechanisms. In addition, even the lightest (compared to other stones) block cannot be rolled over the sand, and, meanwhile, the road did not lead directly to the construction sites;

3. Finally, there is another point of view on one of the components of the process of building the pyramids - the delivery of materials. So, a number of experts believe that the stone blocks were moved by means of special platforms from which the road was built. These scaffolds were a quarter of a circle, due to which the center of gravity of the block is kept at the same level. This design makes it easy to transport even fairly heavy stones, especially when it comes to lowering them from a slope, for example, from a quarry.

About construction

How did the pyramids of Egypt appear: was the construction carried out exclusively at the expense of slaves or not? How did the Egyptians raise the blocks to such a height? And in these issues today there is no unity, even within the framework of the classical approach.

Taking into account the fact that the people of Ancient Egypt did not have all the modern means for lifting stones to the appropriate height, the most optimal way, according to most researchers, was to make a ramp. Of course, objectively this was not the easiest method, since the ramp needed to be long and high.

However, a few years ago, a different option for building a ramp was proposed - inside the pyramid, which caused lively discussions. The essence of this method lies in the fact that during the construction of the pyramid, an internal ramp was used, installed along its edges and gently sloping enough to allow the blocks to be lifted. The internal design of the pyramids is such that such a method could well be used, but a number of important reservations should be made:

only one ramp can be made inside, which means that the construction time of the pyramids should have been simply huge, because the blocks would have to be lifted sequentially one after another, in a chain;
the use of an internal ramp makes it impossible to push the block from behind, only by pulling behind you, and this is very difficult when cornering;
the ramp creates the so-called tunnel effect, that is, in the event of an emergency, all the people inside the pyramid would be doomed to certain death;
such a design requires sufficient lighting, and for this either windows were needed, or torches were required. But there are no windows in the Egyptian pyramids, and the use of torches in the absence of proper ventilation is impossible in practice;
finally, a significant drawback of the theory of the internal ramp is that it is impossible to make it at the very top, therefore, the last blocks were raised in some other way.

Taking into account these shortcomings, the already mentioned technology for the use of semicircular platforms was proposed. In accordance with it, to lift the block, it was enough just to pull it up on a rope, and he himself, rolling along the platform, rose to the required height. After completing one level, the platforms were moved to the next and so on to the very top.

It was concrete!

But we have considered only one hypothetical construction technology. It is not by chance that it is called classical, since it prevails among researchers. But we were able to make sure that the classical hypothesis about the construction of the pyramids in itself is not holistic, it consists of many divergent theories and ideas.

In contrast to the first technology, about 40 years ago, another hypothesis was put forward, the main thesis of which was the statement about a completely different composition of stones: it was assumed that they consist of concrete (made on the basis of limestone) and stone chips.

With this in mind, the construction technology changes significantly: for example, on the very first tier, a rectangular formwork is constructed, into which a kind of concrete is poured. The frozen blocks of the lower row act as formwork for the blocks of the upper row.

Such a theory actually demonstrates the possibility of creating pyramids of such dimensions, and also explains why the individual blocks fit so perfectly to each other.

However, this theory has many weaknesses:

first of all, the very fact of the possibility of making concrete by the Egyptians is called into question, since they knew mainly gypsum mortar;
quarries have been discovered in which traces of block cutting work have been preserved;
Finally, in the very structure of the pyramid, there are still only external flaws that are unacceptable when using concrete.

Conclusion

Of course, there are numerous other assumptions, but they mainly concern certain aspects of construction, for example, issues of stone finishing or masonry features. In relation to the whole process, today there are two main and competing technologies, each of which explains some secrets of the construction of the pyramids, but does not correlate with others at all. Whether a third technology will appear or whether one of the existing ones will be finally proven is a matter of time.