Sierra Leone is the capital of which country. History of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone - West Africa's Little Diamond

31.03.2022

"Lion Mountains" - this is the name of the state of Sierra Leone, located in West Africa, in Portuguese. Occupying an area of about 72 thousand square meters. km, it borders on two countries - Liberia and Guinea. The waters of the Atlantic Ocean wash the shores of the western and southwestern coasts of the country.

The Leono-Liberian Upland is located in the northeast of the country. Mount Bintimani, with a height of 1945 m, is considered the highest point in the country. The Futa Jalon mountain range is located in the north of the state. The main part of the territory of Sierra Leone is a vast lowland. There are many rivers in the country: Big (Kolente) and Small (Kaba) Scarsies, Mabole, Roquel, Macona, etc.

The population of Sierra Leone already exceeds six million people. However, the average age to which the inhabitants of the country live is only 38-41 years. Those who are 65 - only 3%. Although Sierra Leone has a very high infant mortality rate, children under the age of 14 make up almost half of its population. For one sq. km area of the state accounts for 71 inhabitants. The civil war was the reason that many residents of the country had to leave its borders. Some 300,000 Sierra Leoneans have taken refuge in the Gambia, Guinea, Liberia and other countries.

More than 20 ethnic groups live in the country. African peoples make up the bulk of the population of Sierra Leone - Mende, Darker, Limba, etc. The share of the descendants of European settlers who married African slaves - Creoles, accounts for about 10%. In addition to them, Pakistanis, Indians, Libyans and Europeans can be found in the country.

English is recognized as the official language in Sierra Leone. African languages are widespread among the population - darker, Mende and others, as well as the Creo dialect that arose on the basis of the English language.

Fetishism, animalism, the cult of ancestors, the cult of the forces of nature - these beliefs are close to half of the population of Sierra Leone. Adherents of Islam make up 40%. About 8% of the population is Christian.

Almost 85% of the population of Sierra Leone is engaged in agriculture.

Freetown is the capital of the state. About 700 thousand people live in this largest city. Other major cities in the country are Bo, Kenema, Makeni, Koidu and Koindu.

Sierra Leone is a republic headed by a president. He also commands the armed forces of the country. His term of office expires after 5 years, but he can be re-elected. The unicameral parliament, consisting of 124 deputies, exercises legislative power in the country. The country has its own constitution and its own currency - leone.

In 1460, the Portuguese became the first Europeans to visit the region. They also gave the name to the country. In 1787, the British founded their colony in Freetown. It received the status of a royal colony in 1808, and a protectorate in 1896. The country held its first elections in 1924, forming self-government bodies. In April 1961, Sierra Leone gained independence. The military coup in the country took place almost exactly 31 years after that, in April 1992. Sierra Leone is a member of many international organizations - the UN, the British Commonwealth of Nations, the IMF, etc.

Sierra Leone has a humid and hot equatorial climate. The rainy season lasts from May to October. The amount of precipitation per year ranges from 2740-2770 mm. The winter season, lasting from November to April, is drier. In Freetown, the average annual temperature reaches +26 o C.

The fauna of the country is represented mainly by porcupines, chimpanzees, forest pigs and other small mammals. Although, hippos and crocodiles are also found in the local rivers. Full of scorpions and all kinds of insects. Sharks and barracudas are found in coastal waters.

Sandy beaches and diverse natural landscapes, original culture and the opportunity to hunt wild animals - this, and much more, attracts many tourists to the country. The country's tourism sector was on the verge of extinction after a long military conflict. However, in 2005, on the banks of the Lumley River, a Chinese company began building a new tourist complex.

The state of Sierra Leone in the north and east borders on Guinea (the length of the border is 652 km), in the southeast - on Liberia (306 km). In the west and southwest, the country is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. The total length of the border is 958 km, the length of the coastline is 402 km.

The climate of Sierra Leone is equatorial humid, the average head temperature is about + 24 ° С. In terms of rainfall, the country is one of the first places in West Africa. The rainy season begins in May, starting with heavy downpours, and continues without interruption until September. The dry season lasts from December to April. Precipitation per year is about 2,000-2,500 mm, in the mountains - more than 3,000 mm.

Story

In 1800 they were joined by runaway slaves from Jamaica. After Great Britain banned the slave trade in 1807 and freed slaves from captured slave ships that continued to transport "black goods", the number of settlers increased significantly. Gradually, almost the entire territory of the Sierra Leone peninsula was purchased from local rulers - King Tom and King Farima, and in 1808 the settlement was declared a colony of the British crown. In 1825, the area of the colony increased primarily due to the annexation of the entire Sherbro region. Through Edward Blyden's negotiations with the chiefs, British influence extended into the hinterland of present-day Sierra Leone. After the clash between the British and French troops, when each side mistook the other for the detachments of the Muslim leader Samory, the border between the British and French possessions was determined, and in 1896 Great Britain declared the interior of Sierra Leone its protectorate. The housing tax, established by the new English administration in 1898, provoked an uprising of the Temne and Mende peoples. After that, a civil administration was introduced in the protectorate and missionary societies resumed their work. The most active was the Church Missionary Society, which spread its influence to the hinterland from centers established on the coast as early as the beginning of the 19th century.

Although the political traditions of the Creole population of the colony date back to the beginning of the 19th century, national politics as such did not emerge until the 1950s. She focused on two issues: the fear of the Creoles that the larger population of the Protectorate might dominate the life of Sierra Leone, and the struggle against British colonial rule. In April-May 1960, at a conference in London attended by representatives of the British government and all political parties in Sierra Leone, an agreement was reached on a series of constitutional reforms. Their implementation led to the declaration of independence of Sierra Leone on April 27, 1961. After the All People's Congress (AP) won the general election in 1967, its leader Siaka Stevens replaced Margai as prime minister. The next elections on a multi-party basis took place only in 1996.

The reign of S. Stevens was characterized by political intolerance and the repeated introduction of a state of emergency in the country. This continued until 1978, when the leader of the VK proclaimed the creation of a one-party state in the country. In 1985, S. Stevens resigned, handing over the reins of government to Major General Joseph Said Momo, who introduced an authoritarian regime and remained in power until 1992, when a group of young officers led by Captain Valentine Melvin Strasser carried out a military coup.

By this time, the civil war in Liberia had spread to the territory of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone was plunged into its own civil war, in which one of the warring parties were rebels from the Revolutionary United Front. Under the leadership of Corporal F. Sanko, trained in Libya and Liberia, they attacked cities and government facilities, and in 1995 began hostilities in the vicinity of Freetown. To some extent, the fact that the Strasser government used the services of a South African company specializing in the supply of mercenaries helped to deter the rebels.

In 1995, amid total chaos and reports of widespread famine in the country, Strasser was forced to call elections and allow various political parties to participate in the election campaign. Preparations for the elections were in full swing when, in early 1996, a group of officers led by Strasser's deputy Brigadier General Julius Maado Biot staged a military coup.

The civil war was still in full swing when the citizens of Sierra Leone went to the polls in February 1996. By this time the country was in a state of agony. Nevertheless, the elections took place. The first round of elections, which were predominantly held in cities due to the complexity of the military situation in rural areas, revealed two winners: Ahmad Tijan Kabbah, leader of the Sierra Leone People's Party (36%) and John Caref-Smart, leader of the United National People's Party ( 23%). The second round of rivalry for the presidency brought victory to Kabbah. The Revolutionary Popular Front (RNF) boycotted these elections.

In November 1996, Kabbah and Sankoh entered into a peace agreement, but after the arrest of the latter in Nigeria in early 1997 on charges of illegal arms trafficking, the agreement became invalid. In May 1997, a new military coup took place in Sierra Leone. Then a group of junior officers, led by Major Johnny Paul Koroma, who created the Revolutionary Council of the Armed Forces (AFRC), took power into their own hands. At the end of the same year, the AFRC agreed to a cessation of hostilities and the development of peace agreements, but he himself violated a number of important agreements.

In early 1998, the Ceasefire Monitoring Group of the Economic Community of West African States intervened. The predominantly Nigerian peacekeepers ousted Koroma from power and forced his supporters out of the capital. Returning from exile, Kabbah took the presidency. In response, the AFRC decided to join forces with the RNF and launch a campaign of terror against the civilian population.

Attractions Sierra Leone

The capital of country - Freetown- one of the oldest cities in West Africa. Founded in 1787 as a settlement for freed slaves. The city is quite attractive by African standards: its center is built up with neat two- and three-story houses in the English style, typical of the 19th century. The capital has a botanical garden, a National Museum with a good collection that can shed light on the difficult history of this country, a university college founded in the first half of the century before last, and the Anglican Cathedral of St. George, also dated to the 19th century.

Inhabited by the indigenous people of the country are located on the outskirts of the city. Industrial enterprises of the capital are located in its eastern part, not far from the port. There, in the pier area, is the largest and oldest market in Freetown - king jimmy's market. It is named after one of the leaders of the local tribes. He works at the place where the first settlers landed. The market is built in tiers from the old pier along the so-called "Portuguese stairs" to Oxford Street itself, where it merges with its shopping arcade. Three times a week, sailing boats and pirogues arrive in the bay. Peasants and fishermen bring food - fruits, vegetables, fish and rice for sale.

National Museum considered one of the significant attractions of Freetown. It should be noted that outwardly this is a rather unattractive and quiet building, a significant proportion of exhibition halls and expositions is located underground. Here, the objects presented for review (weapons, coins, national clothes) will tell the guests of the city about how rapidly the formation and expansion of this state went. Through a small pavilion located at ground level, travelers will be able to access several underground floors filled with active exhibitions. Among the exhibits are pottery, African traditional bronzes, as well as ceramics.

Bunsei Island- one of the most famous sights of Sierra Leone. This colorful island annually attracts many travelers from all over the world. This is a small island, located thirty kilometers from Freetown, in a natural natural lagoon, and is considered a true legend of Sierra Leone, a living reminder of those dark times when the slave trade flourished in the country.

In the XVIII century, the island of Bunsei served as the largest base of the British slave trade on the entire coast of West Africa. "Live goods" were sent mainly to the United States of America. In addition to the slave trade, rice plantations flourished in these places, on which slaves also worked hard.

In 1948, Bunsei Island received the status of Sierra Leone's first protected area, and in 2008 was named a World Heritage Site and "Africa's Most Important Historic Landmark".

Cuisine of Sierra Leone

The main products of the country are: coffee, rice, cocoa, cassava, yams, peanuts, bananas, coconuts, red palm oil and many others.

Meat is cooked quite rarely, mostly stewed with vegetables, peanuts or rice. But in the coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean and in a developed network of rivers, a large number of different types of fish are found. Fish and seafood, mainly shrimp and lobster, are the main source of protein for the local population.

Vegetable dishes are represented by fried root vegetables and bananas, as well as stewed vegetables with rice. When cooking in large quantities, spices and spices are used. Many recipes include cassava leaves, which are crushed in a mortar and added to the sauce when stewing meat, fish or vegetables.

Popular local dishes include:

Kanya- sweet snacks made from crushed peanuts, rice flour and sugar.

Kamuna- beef stew with dried fish, beans, sweet potatoes, okra, chili and palm oil.

Yegusi- African soup of meat, dried fish with spices and pumpkin seeds.

Banana pancakes are made from bananas, rice flour, eggs and sugar. Fried in peanut butter.

Soft drinks are mostly juices or cocoa-based. Also very popular is non-alcoholic homemade ginger beer, which is brewed with ginger root, sugar, and water, sometimes with lime juice and cloves added for flavor.

Local alcoholic drinks are mainly represented by wine made from palm juice - Poyo.

The content of the article

SIERRA LEONE, Republic of Sierra Leone. State in West Africa. Capital- Freetown (1.01 million people - 2001). Territory- 71.7 thousand square meters. km. Administrative-territorial division– 3 provinces and the Western Region. Population– 6.02 million people (2005, estimate). Official language- English . Religion- Islam, Christianity and traditional African beliefs. Currency unit- leone. National holiday- Independence Day (1961), April 27. Sierra Leone is a member of ca. 40 international organizations, incl. UN since 1961, Organization of African Unity (OAU) since 1963, and since 2002 its successor - the African Union (AU), Non-Aligned Movement, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) since 1975, Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Commonwealth (association of countries , which were part of the British Empire), the Mano River Union (MRU) since 1973.

Geographic location and boundaries.

Continental State. It borders in the northwest and north with Guinea, in the southeast - with Liberia, in the west and southwest it is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. The length of the coastline is 402 km.

Nature.

The larger, Atlantic, part of Sierra Leone is a lowland gently sloping down to the ocean. The northeastern part of the country is occupied by the periphery of the Leono-Liberian Upland with an average height of approx. 600 m and maximum 1945 m (Mount Bintimani). The spurs of the Futa-Jalon massif enter the northern regions.

Minerals - diamonds, bauxite, iron, gold and rutile (mineral, titanium dioxide).

Sierra Leone has a developed river network. The main rivers are the Big Scarsies (Kolente), Little Scarsies (Kaba), Roquel, Jong, Mabole, Seva, Moa and Macona.

The climate is equatorial, hot and humid, with a dry winter season (November-April) and a humid summer season (May-October). On the coast, in Freetown, the average temperature of the warmest month is 29 ° C, the coldest - 24 ° C, the average annual rainfall is 2740 mm, and inland, in Bo, respectively 31 ° C, 21 ° C and 2770 mm of precipitation.

A strip of mangroves stretches along the coast. The main type of vegetation is tall-grass savanna with thickets of shrubs and isolated baobab trees. Moist equatorial forests, preserved only on the eastern slopes of mountains and hills and in the south, occupy less than 5% of the country's area.

In the coastal zone, coconut trees are grown, and in the savannas, oil palms. Ceiba, or cotton tree, teak, pink and ebony, cola grow in the forests.

The animal world consists of many species of birds, mammals include elephant, buffalo, leopard, antelope, zebra, hyena, wild boar, various monkeys, hippos, reptiles - crocodiles, snakes, lizards. Scorpions are found everywhere, a lot of insect species - from the malarial mosquito to large beautiful butterflies and swamp dragonflies. Barracudas and sharks are found in estuaries and coastal waters.

Population.

The average population density is 66.4 people. per 1 sq. km (2002). Its average annual growth is 2.22%. Birth rate - 42.84 per 1000 people, mortality - 20.61 per 1000 people. Child mortality - 143.64 per 1000 newborns. 44.7% of the population are children under 14 years of age. Residents who have reached the age of 65 - 3.3%. Life expectancy - 39.87 years (men - 37.74, women - 42.06). The purchasing power of the population is $800. (All figures are in estimates for 2005).

Sierra Leone is a multi-ethnic state. OK. 90% of the population are African peoples: Mende (30%), Temne (30%), Gola, Koranko, Limba, Loko, Malinka, Susu, Fulbe, Sherbro, etc. Approx. 10% of Sierra Leoneans are Creoles (descendants from mixed marriages of African slaves and European settlers). There are also Europeans, Indians, Lebanese and Pakistanis. 95% of the population speaks Creole (Krio), of the local languages, the languages of the Mende and Temne peoples are the most common.

The rural population is 85%, urban - 15% (2004). Large cities (in thousand people) - Koidu (109.9), Bo (79.7), Kenema (69.9), Makeni (65.9) and Koindu (37.1 thousand) - 2001.

A serious problem is the problem of refugees. Refugees from Liberia found refuge in the country (more than 150 thousand people in 2002). As a result of a long civil war, Sierra Leone became one of the main suppliers of refugees on the African continent (more than 300 thousand people) and internally displaced persons (about 2 million people). Sierra Leonean refugees are in Guinea, Liberia, Gambia and other countries. From the beginning In the 2000s, the number of refugees to the EU countries, the USA and Canada increased significantly.

Religions.

Sierra Leone is one of the most Islamized states on the African continent. Muslims (most profess Sunni Islam) make up approx. 75% of the population, Christians (most Protestants) - 15%, approx. 10% adhere to traditional African beliefs (animalism, fetishism, the cult of ancestors, the forces of nature, etc.) - 2004.

The penetration of Islam began from the territory of neighboring Guinea in the 18th century. The Sufi orders (tarikats) Tijaniya, Shadaliyya and Kadiriyya ( Cm. SUFISM). Christian missionaries (B. Barreira and others) appeared in the country in the 16th century. The active spread of Christianity began in the 1790s. Catholicism began to spread in the second quarter of the 19th century. Several Christian-African churches are also active at present.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

State device.

Presidential republic. The constitution adopted in 1991 is in force (from April 1992 to March 1996 its operation was suspended. The head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the president, who is elected by direct universal suffrage (by secret ballot) for a 5-year term. The president can be elected to this post no more than two times Legislative power is exercised by a unicameral parliament (National Assembly), which consists of 124 deputies (112 of them are elected by proportional representation, 12 represent districts) Deputies of parliament are elected by direct universal suffrage by secret ballot Term of office of the National Assembly - 4 years.

State flag. A rectangular panel consisting of three horizontal stripes of the same size in green (above), white and light blue.

administrative device.

The country is divided into 3 provinces (Northern, Eastern and Southern) and the Western Region (the capital and its suburbs), which consist of 12 districts.

Judicial system.

Based on the principles of English law with the application of customary law. There are the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice, as well as world and local courts.

Armed Forces and Defense.

The creation of the national armed forces began in 1959. In 1998 they were disbanded and replaced by formations that supported the then military regime. The new national army was created in 2001 with the help of the UK. The training of army personnel is carried out by British military specialists (100 people in 2003). In 2002, the army consisted of approx. 14 thousand people, incl. 200 people naval forces. Defense spending in 2005 was $14.25 million (1.7% of GDP).

Foreign policy.

It is based on the policy of non-alignment. In the 1960s-1980s, the country was an active member of the UN and the OAU. The main foreign policy partner is Great Britain. In February 2002, T. Blair paid an official visit to Sierra Leone. Relations with China are developing (established in 1971). Since 2001, China's public investment in Sierra Leone's economy has reached $30 million.

Diplomatic relations between the USSR and Sierra Leone were established on January 18, 1962. From 1963 to 1991, there was an active exchange of delegations along state, parliamentary, and social lines. Bilateral cooperation in the field of trade and economic relations was implemented mainly in the field of fisheries. Contacts were developed in the field of scientific and cultural cooperation, as well as in the field of medicine and assistance in training national personnel for Sierra Leone. In the 1970s, the Sierra Leone-USSR Friendship Society was created in Freetown, Soviet artists repeatedly came on tour, with the help of Soviet specialists a music school (1975) and a nautical school were created in the capital, doctors from the USSR worked in the country's hospitals etc. In December 1991, the Russian Federation was recognized as the legal successor of the USSR. The resumption of ties between Russia and Sierra Leone began in 2000. The participation of Russian peacekeepers (an air detachment of 115 people) in UN operations in Sierra Leone greatly contributes to stabilizing the situation in the country. Cooperation continues in the field of training national personnel (until 2003, 1,432 citizens of Sierra Leone received higher education in the universities of the USSR and Russia).

political organizations.

The country has a multi-party system. The most influential of the political parties:

– « Sierra Leone People's Party», SLPP(Sierra Leone People "s Party, SLPP), leader - Kabbah Ahmad Tejan (Ahmad Tejan Kabbah), general secretary - Harding Prince A. (Prins A. Harding). Ruling party, founded in 1991;

– « All People's Congress», VK(All-People's Congress, APC), leader - Ernest Bai Koroma.

– « People's Democratic Party», NDP(People's Democratic Party, PDP), leader - Osman Kamara. Founded in 1991;

– « United Revolutionary Front», RUF(Revolutionary United Front, RUF), acting leader - Issa Sesay, gen. sec. - Bangura Pallo (Pallo Bangura). Created in 1991 as a rebel group, transformed into a party on July 23, 1999;

– « Peace and Liberation Party"(Peace and Liberation Party, PLP), leader - Koroma Johnny Paul (Johnny Paul Koroma). Main in 2002;

– « National Unity Party», PNE(National Unity Party, NUP), acting leader - Benjamin John Oponjo (John Oponjo Benjamin). Created in 1995.

Trade union associations. Sierra Leone Labor Congress. Chairman – M.Barrie, General Secretary – Kandeh Yilla. Founded in 1966, it unites 19 trade unions with 51,000 members.

ECONOMY

Sierra Leone is one of the ten poorest countries in the world. The basis of the economy is agriculture. As a result, lasting from con. The 1990s civil war saw the decline of the agricultural sector and the mining industry. 70% of the population is below the poverty line (2005).

In 2002 inflation growth was 1%. GDP - 4.92 billion US dollars, its annual growth - 6.3%. The unemployment rate is 60%. (Data 2005). The main financial donors are the UK, USA, Germany, France and Japan. Assistance to the country is also provided by the European Union, the World Bank (WB), Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and China. Sierra Leone's external debt is $1.5 billion.

Labor resources.

Economically active population - 1.7 million people. (2001).

Agriculture.

The share of the agricultural sector in GDP is 49%, it employs approx. 1.05 million economically active population (2001). 7.95% of the land is cultivated (2005). The main food crops are peanuts, sweet potatoes, legumes, cassava, corn, tomatoes, millet, rice, sorghum and taro. They also grow mangoes and citrus fruits. Cash crops are cocoa beans, coffee and oil palm. The development of animal husbandry makes it difficult for the spread of tsetse flies in most of the territory. Timber harvesting is underway. River and sea fishing is developing (catch of sardinella, tuna, crustaceans, mollusks, etc. - 74.7 thousand tons in 2001). Fishery products are partially exported. The country's economy is damaged by poaching fish in coastal waters by foreign ships and smuggling of diamonds.

Industry.

Share in GDP - 31% (2001). It is poorly developed, the basis is the mining industry (mining of diamonds, bauxite, gold and rutile). The mining industry is the main source of foreign exchange earnings. During the civil war, many industrial enterprises were destroyed or looted. The manufacturing industry is represented by small factories and plants for processing agricultural products (production of peanut and palm oil, flour, beer). There are oil refineries and woodworking enterprises. Handicraft production of consumer goods is developing.

International trade.

The volume of imports largely exceeds the volume of exports: in 2004, imports (in US dollars) amounted to 531 million, exports - 185 million. The basis of imports is machinery, equipment, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs, consumer goods and products of the chemical industry. The main import partners are Germany (14.3%), Great Britain (9.3%), Côte d'Ivoire (8.9%), USA (8.6%), China (5.7%), the Netherlands (5.1%), South Africa (4.2%) and France (4.1%) - 2004. The main export commodities are diamonds, iron ore, rutile, cocoa, coffee and seafood.The main export partners are Belgium (61, 4%), Germany (11.8%) and USA (5.4%) - 2004.

Energy.

There is no unified energy system of the country. Electricity is generated mainly at thermal power plants running on diesel fuel. The construction of the hydroelectric power station began in the 1980s (the first station was built with Chinese help in Dodo in 1986). Electricity production in 2003 was 260.6 million kilowatt-hours.

Transport.

The main mode of transport is automobile. The total length of roads is 11.3 thousand km (with a hard surface - 904 km) - 2005. Most of the roads require major repairs. The first railway - Freetown-Pendembu (364 km) - was built in 1896-1916. The total length of railways (narrow gauge) is 84 km (2004). The transport infrastructure of the interior regions of the country is poorly developed. Seaports - Freetown, Bonthe, Threads and Ashes. The length of waterways (large rivers are navigable in their lower reaches) is 800 km (2005). The sea and river fleet has 43 ships, incl. 2 tankers (2002). There are 10 airports and landing sites (only 1 of them has a hard surface), there are 2 helipads (2006). The international airport is located in Lungi (built near Freetown in 1947, renovated in the mid-1980s).

Finance and credit.

The monetary unit is the leone (SLL), which consists of 100 cents. Introduced in August 1964. In December 2005, the national currency rate was: 1 USD = 2889 SLL.

Tourism.

Foreign tourists are attracted by a variety of natural landscapes, sandy beaches of the ocean coast, conditions for hunting wild animals, as well as the original culture of local peoples. The development of tourism began in con. 1960s, mainly in the Western region. In 1994 Sierra Leone was visited by 72,000 foreign tourists, and tourism revenues amounted to $10 million. The protracted military conflict of the 1990s virtually destroyed the tourism sector. In 2001, 24 thousand foreign tourists visited the country. In 2005, a contract for 100 million US dollars was signed with a Chinese company for the construction of a tourist complex on the banks of the Lamley River. Since February 2006, a visa to enter the country can be obtained upon arrival at the international airport in Freetown. The opportunity to see this African country is provided by many Russian travel agencies.

Sights in Freetown - National Museum, Botanical Garden, St. George's Anglican Cathedral (built in 1828). Other attractions are the islands (formerly resort areas) of Banana and Sherbro, the Bumbuna waterfall in the Sula mountains.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Education.

The first schools were opened in con. 18th century in Christian missions. Secondary schools appeared in 1845–1849. The first institution of higher education, Fourah Bay College, was opened in Freetown in 1827. The college trained African teachers and priests.

Children receive primary education (6 years) from the age of 6. Secondary education (7 years) starts at the age of 12 and takes place in two stages, which last 5 years and 2 years. In 1987, education in primary and secondary schools, receiving state subsidies, became free. The system of higher education includes the University of Sierra Leone (opened in the capital in 1967 on the basis of Fura Bay College, consists of two university colleges - Fura Bay and Njala (created in 1964)), as well as pedagogical and two technical colleges. In 2002, 301 teachers worked at nine faculties of the university and 4.3 thousand students studied. The university is under state control, the language of instruction is English. Many educational institutions of the country were destroyed during the civil war. There is an acute problem of rehabilitation and education of former soldiers (many of them are 10-18 years old). In 2002, 36.4 million leone were allocated from the state budget for the development of the education system. There are three research institutes that conduct research in the field of geology, fish resources and African studies. In 2000, 29.6% of the population were literate (39.8% of men and 20.5% of women).

Healthcare.

The incidence rate of AIDS is 7% (2001). In 2002, there were 170 thousand AIDS patients and HIV-infected people, 11 thousand people died. Cadres of doctors and medical personnel are trained in the college, which is located in the capital, and abroad. In 2005, Sierra Leone ranked 176th out of 177 countries according to the United Nations Humanitarian Development Report.

Architecture.

There are several types of traditional dwellings among local peoples. Among the Gola, Susu and other peoples, dwellings are round in shape, with a diameter of 6 to 10 m. The roof is high, cone-shaped. The material for the buildings are mainly bamboo and palm leaves. The dwellings of the Temne, Limba, Mende, etc. peoples are rectangular in plan, built on a frame of logs, a gable roof is laid from palm leaves. The roofs of the Temne and Mende huts are quite low. The houses of the Limba people often have a veranda. The Sherbro people build their huts on stilts.

In the capital, houses built in the colonial style have been preserved. A special type of architecture is the construction of mosques. In modern cities, houses are built of brick and reinforced concrete structures.

Fine Arts and Crafts.

They have centuries-old traditions. 15th–16th century dated stone female figurines nomoli(differ in the correct proportions), made by the masters of the Temne and Sherbro peoples. In Sherbro sculpture by the 17th century. a special style developed, called "Afro-Portuguese". Ivory items made in this style (cone-shaped vessels with a lid, located on a base in the shape of a hemisphere) are distinguished by the complexity of the composition and the abundance of decoration elements. The most common elements are skillfully carved human figures with clearly executed details (facial features, costume items). In foreign museums, approx. 30 samples of such compositions.

The ritual wooden masks of the secret women's societies of Sande and Bundu (among the Mende and Temne peoples) are distinguished by their originality. The masks depict a face with small features along with a thick neck due to wearing jewelry, they are made from a single piece of wood and painted black. Often such masks served as decoration for the thrones and wands of the supreme leaders. Round sculpture - multi-colored, with clearly traced details.

Professional visual arts began to develop after independence. Famous artists - Miranda Buny Nicole (Olainka), John Vandi, Indris Koroma, Celestina Labor-Blake, Hassan Bangura. The works of the portrait painter Fosbe A. Jones were repeatedly exhibited abroad. Sculptors - Paul M. Caramo and others.

Of the crafts and arts and crafts, pottery, wood carving (manufacturing of masks and sculptural images, combs, richly ornamented boards, etc.) and ivory, weaving, batik and weaving of various household items (baskets, mats) from palm leaves and straw.

A collection of African traditional and contemporary art is presented at the National Museum, which is located in the capital. The University of Sierra Leone has a Faculty of Arts.

Literature.

Based on the rich traditions of oral art (myths, songs, proverbs and fairy tales) of local peoples. Recordings of the folklore of the peoples of Sierra Leone were made in the beginning. 1920s (in 1928, the collection "Songs of the Mandingo" was published in Freetown). The formation of written literature began in the middle. 19th century in the Krio and Vai languages. The founders of prose in the genre of journalism in the 19th century. were E. Blyden, historian James Africanus Horton, Ian Joseph Claudis and others. The first literary work is a story Mista Kafirera writer Adelaide Smith Caseley-Hayford, published in 1911. The first Sierra Leonean novel - Boy from Kosso Robert Veles Cole - was published in 1957.

The modern literature of Sierra Leone is developing in English and the local languages of Krio, Mende, etc. A significant place in the literature of Sierra Leone belongs to the writer, poet, essayist and literary critic Nicole Abiose Davidson Willoughby. Widely known in the country are the writers William Conton (author of the famous novel African published in 1960), Clifford Nelson Fail, Raymond Sarif Ismon, Ofori Ofiya, E. Rowe, Peter Karef-Smarta, Sorie Conte, Amadou (Pat) Maddy, Karame Sonko and others.

The formation of national poetry began in the 1930s. Some of the first poets were Gladys May Caseley-Heyford and T.A. Wallace-Johnson. The Sierra Leonean poet Cyril Cheney-Coker is considered by literary critics to be one of the most outstanding African poets of the late 20th century. His poems were translated into Russian and published in the USSR. Other poets are Gaston Bart-Williams, Wilfred C. Taylor, Delphine King-Sesay, J. Pepper-Clark, Raymond G. de Souza, B.B. Jaba, Ofori Domenik, Jibasi Buba, B.D. Harri, Mustafa Muktar and others.

A national dramaturgy began to take shape in Creole in the 1950s. The first playwrights were Clifford Garber, Sylvester Rowe, John Kargbo, Eric Hassan Dean, Johnson Lemuel. Major playwrights - John Joseph Akar, Sarif Ismon, Amadou (Pat) Maddy, Raymon D. Charlie.

Music.

National music has ancient traditions, formed on the basis of the music of local peoples. Musical culture has been significantly influenced by the musical traditions of immigrants from Europe (Great Britain, USA, Brazil) and Arabic music (primarily in Sunni rituals). In the second half of the 20th century influenced by American pop music, new styles appeared and spread widely.

Playing musical instruments, songs and dances are closely connected with the daily life of the local peoples. It is distinguished by a variety of musical instruments (more than 50 items) - drums (bote, kangbai, n "kali, sangbai, tomtams, huban, hutambu), balangs and chorde (drums), kongoma and faa (noise), bark and kondings (strings), koningei (musical bow), shengbure (stringed), kondi (plucked), etc. Singing is well developed, both solo and ensemble.Songs are distinguished by a variety of genres - ritual, laudatory, lyrical, etc. Singing is often accompanied by a characteristic recitative Unison singing is common in rituals.Various rituals are a harmonious combination of music and theatrical songs-dances (for example, songs-dances of masks).

The formation of professional musical art in Sierra Leone began in the 1920s and is associated with the name of Nicholas Balant Taylor, who wrote several operas and concert overtures. In 1934, the composer Dafar wrote a musical drama called Kinkurkor. After independence, numerous musical ensembles and dance groups were created in the country. In 1971, the artists of the National Ensemble of Sierra Leone (created by the famous cultural figure D. Akar in 1965) successfully performed on tour in the USSR. The Sierra Leonean rock groups Afronational, Goldfaza and others have gained international fame. Famous modern singers are Tongo Kanu, Kamari Jiba Tarawali, Pa Kontoba and others.

Theatre.

Modern national theatrical art is formed on the basis of rich traditional creativity. A significant influence on him was the work of griots (the common name for professional storytellers and musicians-singers in West Africa), who staged improvisational performances during the holidays. The first English amateur theater groups emerged during the colonial period.

African amateur theater groups formed in the 1950s. In 1958, playwright, actor, and director John Joseph Acar formed the Actors of Sierra Leone troupe. In 1963, the amateur dramatic societies of educational institutions merged into the National Theater League. In the 1960s, the first opera group was created in Freetown. The formation of a professional national theater began with the creation by the playwright Raymond Dele Charli of the experimental Tabule Theater in the beginning. 1970s Most productions in the theater were performed in the Krio language.

Press, radio broadcasting, television and the Internet.

The first newspaper in the country, the Sierra Leone Royal Gazette, was published in 1801. The following are currently published in English:

- daily government newspaper "Daily Mail" (Daily Mail - "Daily Mail");

- published 2 times a week newspapers "We Yone" (We Yone - "Our Interlocutor") and "New Shaft" (The New Shaft - "New Spear");

- weekly newspapers "Chronicle" (Chronicle - "Chronicle"), "New Citizen" (New Citizen - "New Citizen"), "Progress" (Progress - "Progress"), "Flash" (Flash - "Flash) and" For people "(For the People -" For the people ").

The national "News Agency of Sierra Leone", SLENA (Sierra Leone News Agency, SLENA) has been operating since 1980, is located in Freetown. The government's Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service was established in 1934. It is the oldest in English-speaking West Africa and is located in the capital. Radio programs are broadcast in English and Creole (Cryo) and the local languages of Limba, Mende and Temne. Television programs have been broadcast since April 1963. In 2005, there were 2,000 Internet users.

STORY

The first Portuguese navigators back in the 15th century. discovered the peninsula, which they called Sierra Leone (translated as "Lion Mountains"). This name then spread to the whole country. The birth of the colony itself dates back to 1788, when the local leader Nyambana ceded part of his territory to the captain of the English Royal Navy, John Taylor, who acted on behalf of "a community of free settlers, their heirs and successors, recently arrived from England and under the protection of the British government." The said community consisted of 400 poor blacks and 60 women from England, who had settled here a year earlier. Black settlers were freed slaves who fought for the British during the American Revolution and runaway slaves who found refuge in Britain. The settlement was named Freetown ("city of the free"). The site of the first settlement proved unsuccessful, and in 1791 the Sierra Leone Company, under the leadership of Henry Thornton, assisted by Granville Sharp and William Wilberforce, founded a new settlement near the first. In 1792, a group of 1,100 freed slaves arrived from Nova Scotia. In 1800 they were joined by runaway slaves from Jamaica. After Great Britain banned the slave trade in 1807 and freed slaves from captured slave ships that continued to transport "black goods", the number of settlers increased significantly. Gradually, almost the entire territory of the Sierra Leone peninsula was purchased from local rulers - King Tom and King Farima, and in 1808 the settlement was declared a colony of the British crown. In 1825, the area of the colony increased primarily due to the annexation of the entire Sherbro region. Through Edward Blyden's negotiations with the chiefs, British influence extended into the hinterland of present-day Sierra Leone. After the clash between the British and French troops, when each side mistook the other for the detachments of the Muslim leader Samory, the border between the British and French possessions was determined, and in 1896 Great Britain declared the interior of Sierra Leone its protectorate. The housing tax, established by the new English administration in 1898, provoked an uprising of the Temne and Mende peoples. After that, a civil administration was introduced in the protectorate and missionary societies resumed their work. The most active was the Church Missionary Society, which extended its influence into the hinterland from centers established on the coast as early as the beginning of the 19th century.

Although the political traditions of the Creole population of the colony date back to the early 19th century, national politics as such did not emerge until the 1950s. She focused on two issues: the fear of the Creoles that the larger population of the Protectorate might dominate the life of Sierra Leone, and the struggle against British colonial rule. In April-May 1960, at a conference in London attended by representatives of the British government and all political parties in Sierra Leone, an agreement was reached on a series of constitutional reforms. Their implementation led to the declaration of independence of Sierra Leone on April 27, 1961. After the All People's Congress (AP) won the general election in 1967, its leader Siaka Stevens replaced Margai as prime minister. The next elections on a multi-party basis took place only in 1996.

On January 16, 1999, the United Revolutionary Front (RUF) launched an insurrectionary war against the government, seized the eastern part of Freetown. Four days later, the capital was liberated by ECOMOG units (Peacekeeping Forces of West African States). As a result of long negotiations, on May 18, 1999 in Lome (Togo), President Kabbah and Sankoh (the leader of the RUF) signed a ceasefire agreement on May 24, 1999 and the subsequent division of power. The rebel group, however, violated the peace agreement, and on October 22 of the same year, the UN Security Council decided to send a military contingent (6 thousand people) into the country to maintain peace in the country. The actions of the rebels with renewed vigor intensified in the beginning. 2000: armed attacks were carried out on settlements, captured ca. 500 peacekeepers. By spring, the RUF controlled almost half of the country. The stubborn resistance of the rebels forced the UN Security Council to increase the number of military contingents to 11 thousand people. After being arrested by the Sanko authorities, the RUF was led by General Issa Sisei.

Sierra Leone in the 21st century

A new ceasefire agreement was signed in November 2000 under pressure from the UN and the UK. To a large extent, this was also facilitated by the adoption by the UN of a ban on the trade in African diamonds (the RUF smuggled diamonds from Sierra Leone). The disarmament of the RUF detachments continued until January 2002. As a result of the civil war, which lasted 11 years, from 50 to 200 thousand people died, according to various sources, and the infrastructure was almost completely destroyed.

On May 14, 2002, in the presence of UN peacekeeping forces, general elections were held on a multi-party basis. Out of nine candidates, Kabbah won the presidential election with 70.1% of the vote. In the parliamentary elections, the Sierra Leone People's Party won a landslide victory, winning 83 (out of 124) seats. The All People's Congress Party won 27 seats.

In January 2003, the authorities thwarted a plot to destabilize the country. In March 2005, the UN International War Crimes Tribunal for Sierra Leone began operating in Freetown (the first case in world practice when cases of war crimes are tried at the scene of their commission). The last changes in the composition of the government were made on September 6, 2005. In March 2006, a tribunal meeting will be held to consider the case of former Liberian President Charles Taylor, who supported the Sierra Leonean rebels.

In the parliamentary elections in August 2007, the opposition "All People's Congress" bypassed the ruling People's Party. The opposition received 59 seats in the 112-seat parliament. The People's Party, led by the outgoing president, secured 43 seats in the new legislature. Ernest Bai-Koroma was elected the new president of the country in the second round in September 2007.

Lyubov Prokopenko

Unfortunately, holidays in Sierra Leone in 2020 are not very popular among tourists. This is due to the military conflicts that took place here and, as a result, to poverty and devastation in the country. But even despite these difficulties, many desperate travelers come here to enjoy the traditional flavor and breathtaking scenery. Also, tourists are pleased with very low prices and picturesque sights. It is worth going to Sierra Leone being a prepared traveler. And an article from which you will learn all the features of recreation in this country will additionally help to prepare.

Brief historical background

The territory of this state was inhabited by mankind more than 2500 years ago. It must be said that the dense forest network served as a natural barrier to the penetration of other African cultures, as well as Islamization.

The first historical sources dating back to the 16th century say that tribes lived in this area and waged wars among themselves. They mastered agriculture, used iron for a long time. In some places, feudal states were formed.

But then came the period of the arrival of Europeans in Africa, and this territory became one of the first places where they set foot - the Portuguese arrived. They found only some tribal associations that were not related to each other in a cultural or linguistic way. The Portuguese came up with this name for the territory. The local harbor became an excellent haven for sailors, and in the 17th century the British founded their fort here.

Sierra Leone became a place of settlement for freed slaves. They built the Freetown settlement here, which is now the city, the capital of the state. The current population of the country is mainly the descendants of those settlers, the Creoles.

In the 19th century, the British occupied Sierra Leone. They colonized and developed the territory, even if the local population fought them. In the 20th century, industry began to develop in the country, roads were built. World wars did not affect the state in any way.

But in the middle of the century, as in many African countries, the time has come to gain independence. This happened in the 60s of the last century. After that, as is usual in the states beginning life, a series of coups followed. In the 1990s, a civil war was waged in the country.

By the beginning of the 2000s, peaceful relations had been established between the government and the rebels. But, unfortunately, to this day the country remains one of the poorest in the world, agriculture is the most developed. Therefore, tourists are not very keen on Sierra Leone, but there are special travelers who are so interested in Africa in its diversity that they will visit this country with pleasure.

Brief geographic reference and climate

Sierra Leone is a small state on the Atlantic coast. The capital is the city of Freetown. On the coast of the country - amazing mangrove forests, for the most part - savannah with herbs. Equatorial forests are preserved only in the south, on the slopes of the mountains.

Near the Atlantic, the relief is lowland, and the farther from the ocean, the higher. The highest point in the country rises almost 2000 meters above the ground. There are many rivers in Sierra Leone, and picturesque bays on the coast.

The climate of the country is hot and humid, subequatorial. In winter there is a dry season (lasts from November to April), in summer it is humid. On the coast, temperatures range from 24 to 29 degrees Celsius on average. In the depths of Sierra Leone, the temperature difference is more noticeable: from 21 to 31 degrees Celsius on average.

Sierra Leone on the map

Sierra Leone Travel Planning: Transport, Accommodation, Visa, Security

How to get to Sierra Leone, transport in the country

With early booking tickets in Sierra Leone, the cheapest ticket, with two transfers, will cost about 40,000 rubles - one way. Yes, it is quite difficult to get into this country. One-stop options are popular: docking in London or.

The airport is separated directly from the city by a bay: for $ 80 you can get to land by helicopter, for $ 40 - by water, by car.

Most of the country's population lives in the capital, but public transport is not developed at the moment even there. Basically, fixed-route and regular taxis travel around Sierra Leone, by the way, the last one will take you to another point in the country, but for a European, a trip will cost four times more than a local resident.

Intercity communication is also represented by buses and water transport. You can rent a car, in the capital there are offers from international car rental companies.

Where to stay in Sierra Leone, hotels in the country

As for the hotel infrastructure, due to poverty in the country and a small number of tourists, it is poorly developed. But still, he who seeks will always find. So, consider the metropolitan options. A guest house for one traveler will cost about 1,500 rubles per day. Three-star hotel - around 5000 rubles per night for one person. A five-star establishment with its own beach, food and transfer on the same conditions - 13,000 rubles. The country has ordinary hotels, guest houses, lodges and apartments are less common.

Visa to Sierra Leone for Russians

A visa, even for a tourist, is needed in the state. But you can do it by email. You need to go to the official website of the country's Ministry of Tourism, fill out a form and provide all the necessary data. The visa fee will be $100. Three days for a decision - and if a visa was given, then confirmation will be sent by e-mail. It should be printed and shown when crossing the border. Then a special mark will be pasted into the foreign passport, you can stay in the country for a month.

Safety in Sierra Leone

Some time ago, an Ebola epidemic raged in the state, however, at present, the threat has been stopped. And the era of the Civil War has long passed, so now the country is among the safest for tourists. It is worth remembering the following safety rules:

always have an identity card with you;
treat the authorities and ordinary people with respect;
drink only bottled water;
get vaccinated against yellow fever, typhoid, hepatitis;
take a course of antimalarial drugs.

Features of rest in Sierra Leone: attractions, places of interest, entertainment

Attractions and interesting places in Sierra Leone

Freetown is the capital of this small West African state. This city is the oldest in the entire region. Therefore, here you can find many cultural and architectural monuments that will amaze tourists with their uniqueness. The entire city center is built up with low-rise buildings in the style of English provincial towns of the nineteenth century.

Arriving in Freetown, you should definitely see the National Museum, the Anglican Cathedral of St. George, visit the botanical garden. And in the city there are a lot of monuments that are somehow connected with freedom - after all, the city was founded by freed slaves. For example, this is the Tree of Reconciliation, the symbol of the city. Or the Royal Gates, which are engraved that any slave passing through them becomes free.

Bunce Island is located near Freetown. There are the ruins of a fortress that was previously used as a prison for slaves. And other islands - Banana Islands - will appeal to those who love to engage in water sports, they are quite suitable for diving and fishing.

Most sophisticated tourists are attracted by the untouched nature of Sierra Leone.

The country is spread over a picturesque undulating plain, where experienced travelers prefer to travel light - on foot. Only in this way, they argue, can one absorb the unimaginably sweet and rebellious spirit of Africa.

The whole plain is cut by many small streams, many full-flowing rivers, which, flowing into the ocean, form very cozy and comfortable harbors. There are many wonderful beaches near the ocean, many of which have been hidden from people for many decades. And today they appear before us in all their original and such alluring beauty.

You can visit one of the national parks. For example, the Outamba-Kilimi National Park is located in the north-west of the country. There you can see cute chimpanzees and other monkeys, hippos, elephants, antelopes and many birds.

Many travelers are attracted by the Gola Rainforest. It is located in the east of the country and operates throughout the year. The national park is well suited for excursions - there is a tourist center and good paths. You can just walk, you can go on a safari in a jeep, you can go to the nearby ethnographic village. But the Gola Rainforest is beautiful in itself, because it is just a small patch of preserved tropical rainforest, which is also home to endangered birds and animals.

Things to Do in Sierra Leone

The entire territory of Sierra Leone is inhabited by numerous tribes and nationalities living according to ancient traditions. The locals are very friendly and open to tourists. They will gladly offer their shelter, show you the numerous rituals of their ancestors, and be sure to teach you a couple of funny African songs. But this, of course, is mainly in small towns.

Entertainment more understandable to Europeans awaits in Freetown. There's even an entire beach, Lumley Beach, dedicated specifically to festivals and beach parties. There are sports and playgrounds in the city, there is even a casino.

Shopping in the country is mainly small shops and shops. You shouldn't bring brands from Africa, at least not from this poor country. But a souvenir with a national touch is definitely worth it. It could be things like:

the National costume;
wood crafts;
mask;
musical instrument;
bijouterie: woven beaded and beaded jewelry.

Culinary traditions in Sierra Leone are interesting. The fact is that meat is practically not used here - it was too expensive for centuries. But, of course, in the capital you can find restaurants for those who love hearty meat dishes.

Examples of traditional dishes include camuna (beef with beans and chili), pike perch with peanut sauce or lobster with ginger, and cassava is widely used. Drinks include homemade ginger beer or palm wine. The cost of a set lunch in a restaurant is approximately $20 to $30.

The small country of Sierra Leone, although not particularly known to tourists, is so filled with comfort and warmth that it is definitely worth a visit. The beautiful coastline, the spirit of freedom in the capital, nature throughout the country will definitely cheer you up and make your vacation unforgettable.

A little more about what is worth seeing in Sierra Leone - in the video:

SIERRA LEONE

(Republic of Sierra Leone)

Geographical position. Sierra Leone is a state in West Africa. In the north and east it borders on Guinea, in the southeast - on Liberia. In the southwest and west it is washed by the Atlantic Ocean. .

Square. The territory of Sierra Leone occupies 71,740 sq. km.

Main cities, administrative divisions. The capital of Sierra Leone is Freetown. The largest cities: Freetown (649 thousand people), Kenema (337 thousand people), Bo (269 thousand people). Administrative-territorial division of the country: 3 provinces and the Western region.

Political system

Sierra Leone is under military rule. Power is in the hands of the head of the National Provisional Ruling Council. The country is part of the Commonwealth.

Nature

Relief. Most of the country is the Leono-Liberian Upland (height up to 1,948 m), in the north - the spurs of Futa-Jallon, in the west and south - lowland.

Geological structure and minerals. The bowels of the country contain reserves of diamonds, bauxites, titanium ore, iron ore, and gold.

Climate. The climate is tropical. The average annual temperature in Freetown is about + 26 ° C, the rainy season lasts from May to October.

Inland waters. The main rivers are Moa, Seva, Roquel, Kaba.

Soils and vegetation. Savannah prevails, in the mountains and in the south - humid equatorial forests.

Animal world. Among the representatives of the fauna are mainly small mammals: forest pig, chimpanzee, porcupine. There are crocodiles and hippos in the rivers.

Population and language

The population of Sierra Leone is about 5.08 million people, the average population density is about 70 people per 1 sq. km. km. Ethnic groups: Dark-30%, Mende - 29%, Creoles, about 20 more groups. Languages: English (official), Mende, Temne, other African languages, Creo (a dialect based on English).

Religion

Pagans - 52%, Muslims - 40%, Christians - 8%.

Brief historical outline

The first Europeans in this region were the Portuguese in 1460, who gave the country its name ("Lion Mountains"). The British colony appeared in Freetown in 1787. In 1808, Sierra Leone acquired the status of a royal colony, and in 1896 - the status of a protectorate. In 1924, the country held its first local government elections. Sierra Leone gained independence on April 27, 1961. On April 29, 1992, a military coup took place in the country.

Brief economic essay

Sierra Leone is an agricultural country with a developed mining industry. Main commercial crops: coffee, oil palm. Logging. Fishing. Mining of diamonds, bauxite, gold, rutile. Oil refineries, woodworking enterprises. Export: mining and agricultural products.

The monetary unit is the leone.

A Brief Outline of Culture

Art and architecture. Freetown. National Museum; Botanical Garden; Anglican Cathedral of St. George (1828).